LESSON 01
MASS COMMUNICATION – AN OVERVIEW
Communication – sending of a message from one person to another, in simplest terms - has been
one of the oldest characteristics of human life. Even when formal languages were not available, people were
able to make each other understand their feelings and gestures to accomplish routine tasks.
There is no trace available as when the languages came into being, the communication among people,
however, got on faster track than before with the availability of formal languages in the form of symbols,
gestures, body expressions and words. Since those times the communication has been shaping into different
forms and is supposed to be the key element in creation of different subjects and passing on experiences of
one generation onto the next.
Starting from sending and receiving information amongst few individuals to high number of people, the
communication is now well classified into different categories.
Although main focus here is the mass communication, it is pertinent to understand some basic elements,
fields and concepts of elementary communication before entering the very complex and widely exploited
world of mass communication.
Basic Concepts of Communication
Well, the world communication has its origin in the Latin word COMMUNIS which stands for
common or to create commonness with the people around you. This is possible when you share your
feelings and ideas with others.
According to commonly used definition, communication is transfer of message from sender to receiver
through a channel. It is understood that speech or utterances in the form of voice, were the initial stages of
communication which gradually developed into a defined form of language when all the people of a
community got to attach specific meanings to the voices and gestures.
It might have taken centuries to mankind to enter the stage of writing its messages on stones etc. But once
writing was developed as one mean of communication there had been attempts to find some material to
write on, which was more sustainable and easy to take along in travel. Using bark of certain trees for this
purpose, the endeavor led to invention of paper, thus revolutionizing the early days‘ communication.
Writing on paper by hand must have brought joy to people for sending their messages across to many
others, after that, the invention of printing overwhelmed efforts to give new dimensions to communication.
This further led to setting up a whole new printing industry world over followed by modern means of
communication, which will be discussed in detail in this course.
Why need communication?
Survival
The foremost reason to communicate to others for the human beings in particular is their own
survival. There is hardly any sense in believing that a person can all alone live a life by fulfilling its daily life
needs. The fact is that every next moment a person is dependent on others to survive. Hence it is inevitable
for all of us to bank on communication.
Co-operation
There is a very genuine instinct in all the living creatures to cooperate with each other to keep the
cycle of life running. Humans need this more cautiously as to keep their hard felt sense of superiority.
Relationships
Feeling of keeping a range of relationship from an individual to family and tribe was strong from
early days of human civilization. It would have been extremely difficult to promote a life style without
acknowledging the relationships among people living together for sometime. Communication was essential
to identify relations among people to accomplish different tasks.
Persuasion
Communication proved handy in the course of persuasion and influence others to keep the human
civilization grow. The task is done even today, though, with different techniques and in a rather complex
world of communication.
Power
Better communication helped people and tribes to command power over others. This phenomenon
is more evident in the fields of conflict and to bring the enemy down. To muster support by using better
communication skills has always been the hallmark of human interactivity.
Social needs
Social needs grow with almost the same pace, human culture and civilization nurture. History
stands as testimony to the fact that the circle of human social needs expands as people try to live together in
more organized manner. Communication is the common most thing which knit societies to fulfill their
desire to rise jointly.
Information
In more advance world, as it is today, it is a piece of information – a piece of communication,
which brings relief to human living in a score of ways. Information about roads, condition, may help you
change your traveling plan, for instance. A small bit of information may have a life long impression on your
future business.
Decision making
And not the least, in present day affairs communication goes long way in helping us in decision
making. Not an individual alone, but families and nations, can draw certain conclusions with the help of
available communication on certain matters which is likely to improve the overall living standards and a
more secure life for all of human beings.
Major Fields of Mass Communication
General Information
The main field of mass communication has been to inform people at large about things which are
in their immediate interest. This includes the vast area of news, views and current affairs. Apart of specific
nature of news etc. people are also informed about entertainment which may include sporting events, music
or recreation. To educate masses is also part of mass communication by exploiting all the means at hand to
address a distant and high concentration of individuals.
Public Relations
Although this area of mass communication has assumed new dimensions in the modern world,
keeping relations with various types of public has its traces from ancient history. This area has proved handy
to organized and corporate sectors, which have a defined purpose to achieve by keeping relations with
audience of their choice.
Publicity
Publicity, which is more known as advertising, is definitely an outcome of modern means of
communication for it largely depends on the technology being exploited to address masses for purely
commercial purposes. So enormous has been the impact of advertising through means of mass
communication that a huge advertising industry has come up offering tens of thousands of jobs of different
nature to people across the world.
LESSON 02
EARLY MASS COMMUNICATION AND PRINTING TECHNOLOGY
We now understand that sending message to a large number of audience using technology is known
as mass communication It is pertinent to see in some details the organs of this kind of communication
before studying a few intriguing areas like the elements and forms of communication.
Letters/ leaflets
A very primitive form of mass communication is found in centuries old approach to write letters
which were in the common interest of general public. These letters were written from the court of kings and
sent to nobles and notables whose number may not be very high by today‘s standards but at a time when
one could not address more than a few dozen people, communication to a relatively larger audience- that
too at some distance and the same text, may be considered as early attempts to approach the masses
through written words.
Books
From writing letters to very many people on one subject, the next move was to write books on
matters of social life, philosophies, religion, health and scientific advancements. The hand-written books
continued to rule the world for centuries by taking views of writers to hundreds and thousands of people
across countries. For instance, the central church in ROME had employed hundreds of clerics for the
purpose of writing copies of bible for taking the message of Christianity to its followers. Almost the same
had been the practice by other religions to convey their teachings to the masses by hand-written copies of
the holy inscriptions. Many a museums in the world are proud to have some hand-written copies of
religious or scientific works done centuries ago.
Printing
Major breakthrough in mass communication occurred when printing process was invented. The
revolutionary invention makes an interesting study:
The printing press is a mechanical device for printing many copies of a text paper. First invented in China in
1041, the printing press as we know it today was invented in the West by a German goldsmith, Johann
Gutenberg in the 1440s. Dutch Laurens Janszoon Coster has also been credited with this invention.
Development of the Printing Press
The original method of printing was block printing, pressing sheets of paper into individually
carved wooden blocks. It is believed that block printing originated in China, and the earliest known printed
text, the Diamond Sutra (a Buddhist scripture), was printed in China in 868 A.D.
The use of movable type in printing was invented in 1041 AD by Bi Sheng in China. Movable type did spur,
however, additional scholarly pursuits in China and facilitated more creative modes of printing.
Nevertheless, movable type was never extensively used in China until the European style printing press was
introduced.
Although probably unaware of the Chinese, Gutenberg refined the technique with the first widespread use
of movable type, where the characters are separate parts that are inserted to make the text. Gutenberg is
also credited with the first use of an oil-based ink, and using "rag" paper introduced into Europe from
China by way of Muslims, who had a paper mill in operation in Baghdad as early as 794. Before inventing
the printing press in 1440, Gutenberg had worked as a goldsmith. Without a doubt, the skills and
knowledge of metals that he learned as a craftsman were crucial to the later invention of the press.
The claim that Gutenberg introduced or invented the printing press in Europe is not accepted by all. The
other candidate advanced is the Dutchman Laurens Janszoon Coster.
Impact of printing
Before we proceed to learn about other organs of mass communication, we may give little more
attention to the printing as it almost revolutionized the communication in centuries to follow this invention.
Previously, books were copied by scribes who wrote them out by hand. Books were therefore a scarce
resource. While it might take someone a year to hand copy a Bible, with the Gutenberg press it was possible
to create several hundred copies a year, with two or three people that could read, and a few people to
support the effort. Each sheet still had to be fed manually, which limited the reproduction speed, and the
type had to be set manually for each page, which limited the number of different pages created per day.
Despite some resistance, Gutenberg's printing press spread rapidly across Europe. Within thirty years of its
invention in 1453, towns from Hungary to Spain and from Italy to Britain had functional printing presses. It
has been theorized that this incredibly rapid expansion shows not only a higher level of industry (fueled by
the high-quality European paper mills that had been opening over the past century) than expected, but also
a significantly higher level of literacy than has often been estimated.
The first printing press in a Muslim territory opened in Andalusia (Muslim Spain) in the 1480s. This printing
press was run by a family of Jewish merchants who printed texts with the Hebrew script.
Effects of printing on culture
The discovery and establishment of the printing of books with moveable type marks a paradigm
shift in the way information was transferred in Europe. The impact of printing is comparable to the
development of language, the invention of the alphabet, and the invention of the computer as far as its
effects on the society are concerned.
Gutenberg's findings not only allowed a much broader audience to read Martin Luther's German translation
of Bible, it also helped spread Luther's other writings, greatly accelerating the pace of Protestant
Reformation. They also led to the establishment of a community of scientists (previously scientists were
mostly isolated) that could easily communicate their discoveries, bringing on the scientific revolution. Also,
although early texts were printed in Latin, books were soon produced in common European vernacular,
leading to the decline of the Latin language.
Because of the printing press, authorship became more meaningful. It was suddenly important who had said
or written what, and what the precise formulation and time of composition was. The printing process
ensured that the same information fell on the same pages, page numbering, tables of contents and indices
became common. The process of reading was also changed, gradually changing from oral readings to silent,
private reading. This gradually raised the literacy level as well, revolutionizing education.
It can also be argued that printing changed the way Europeans thought. With the older illuminated
manuscripts, the emphasis was on the images and the beauty of the page. Early printed works emphasized
principally the text and the line of argument. In the sciences, the introduction of the printing press marked a
move from the medieval language of metaphors to the adoption of the scientific method.
In general, knowledge came closer to the hands of the people, since printed books could be sold
for a fraction of the cost of illuminated manuscripts. There were also more copies of each book available, so
that more people could discuss them. Within 50-60 years, the entire library of "classical" knowledge had
been printed on the new presses. The spread of works also led to the creation of copies by other parties
than the original author, leading to the formulation of copyright laws. Furthermore, as the books spread
into the hands of the people, Latin was gradually replaced by the national languages. This development was
one of the keys to the creation of modern nations. Effects of printing press on masses have been much
more and will be discussed more elaborately after few lectures.
LESSON 03
SEVEN CENTURIES OF MASS COMMUNICATION – FROM PRINTING TO COMPUTER
As if printing process was an invention long been eagerly awaited to bolster communication at the
level of masses, it opened doors for creation and discoveries of many valuable means in the area of mass
transaction of messages which, as the time proved, had far reaching impression on the growth of societies,
cultures, habits, disputes and organizations which could help people live in a world close to each other.
The printing process was first proved helpful to long desire of authors to reach a high number of readers.
As the books circulation increased in the next hundred years, which also included works on different
scientific discoveries and sharing of newer physical ideas, it was the turn to publish things regularly. Since
people‘s interest was enormous in buying and reading books, an idea to bring out a publication on regular
basis was never ruled out.
Newspapers/ magazines
It took almost two hundred years that the concept of regular publication appeared in the form of
newspapers. There are conflicting ideas as who brought out the first newspaper in the world and how long
it had sustained but according to the World Association of Newspapers, the first titled English language
private newspaper, The Corrant, was first published in London in 1621.
The first English daily newspaper, the Daily Courant, was founded by Samuel Buckley on 11 March 1702.
In 1631 The Gazette, the first French newspaper was founded. In 1690, Public Occurrences in Boston
became the first newspaper published in America. In 1803, just 15 years after the first British penal colony
was established, Australia's military government published the Sydney Gazette and the New South Wales
Advertiser, Australia's first newspapers.
1884 Otto Merganthaler invents the Linotype machine which casts type in full lines, using hot lead, a
quantum leap in newspaper publishing, and ushering in the era of "hot lead." The systems remained in
general production in the industry well into the 1980s, when computerized pagination became prominent.
This printing process was assumed by hundreds of regular publications of newspapers and magazines
around the world and remained in frequent use for almost a hundred year.
1962 L.A. Times derived Linotype hot metal typesetters with perforated tape. The key was development of
a dictionary and a method to automate the hyphenation and justification of text in columns (tasks that took
up 40% of a manual operator's time). With the availability of other technologies and support like advanced
mechanics and electricity more experimentation were done in publishing industry.
Since the 1980s, many newspapers have been printed with three-color process photography and graphics.
This highlights the fact that the layout of the newspaper is of major importance in getting attention so
readers will see and enjoy large sections of the newspaper.
Circulation and Readership
United Nations' data from 1995 indicates that Japan is the country with most newspaper
readership. It has three daily papers with a circulation well above 4 million. Germany's Bild, with a
circulation of 4.5 million, was the only other paper in that category.
USA Today has daily circulation of approximately 2 million, making it the most widely distributed paper in
the U.S.
Business side
Almost all newspapers make almost all their money from advertising. Publishers of commercial
newspapers strive for higher circulation so that advertising in their newspaper becomes more effective,
allowing the newspaper to attract more advertisers and charge more for the service. But some advertising
sales also market demographics. Some newspapers might sacrifice higher circulation numbers in favor of an
audience with a higher income. Some newspapers provide some or all of their content on the Internet,
either at no cost or for a fee. In some cases free access is only available for a matter of days or weeks or
readers must register and provide personal data. In other cases, extensive free archives are provided.
Radio – radical change in mass communication
As the world was enjoying the benefits of mass communication through print medium, scientists
had been working on some other miracle – reaching out masses through voice. Though in the middle of
19th century it sounded as talking-high, towards the end of the century things had started shaping as the idea
might be materialized. It actually did at the brink of 20th century when Italian born Guglielmo Marconi
introduced to the world his marvel which today we all know as a radio – the device which brings voice to
you from thousands of kilometers.
Marconi – transmits signals by radio waves
An Irish-Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi is commonly credited for doing that in 1895. But,
whether he was actually the first to send signals through the air is open to debate. Other countries have
some impressive evidence that some of their citizens transmitted radio signals before Marconi. Even so, if
you asked the question on some quiz show, you'll be safest with the name "Guglielmo Marconi.‖ Once he
proved that wireless transmissions (radio to you and me) could work, Marconi patented the invention in
England and set up the Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company.
Brief Radio history
Once radio broadcasting was launched, people began to realize just how significant this new
medium could be. The first regular radio broadcast in the USA in 1920 brought presidential election returns
— in advance of the newspapers. People quickly took note of all the free music, information, and
commentary that was suddenly available to anyone with a radio set.
But, something else was going on at the same time. Scores of people were building their own personal radio
stations, probably motivated in part by the ability to be widely heard by friends, neighbors, relatives, and
even strangers. That created a major problem. Soon there were too many stations for the number of
frequencies available to separate them on the radio dial.
Some thought the solution was simply to use more power to drown out the competition. So it got to be a
power battle too. But soon regulations were enacted by countries where radio stations were set up by people
on their own. Now the states issued license to the willing public to run a radio station.
Broadcast Advertising
Then another element entered the picture — broadcast advertising. In 1922, a station in New York
ran a 10-minute talk on the merits of some co-op apartments in Jackson Heights, N.Y — and charged $50
for their effort.
That was deemed a toll broadcast — now better known as a commercial. At that point it was discovered that
you could actually make money by promoting products on radio — and, of course, things have been the same
since then.
Other countries had their own ideas about this new medium. In Great Britain this led to the establishment
of the BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation) in 1923. The BBC used public taxes on radio receivers,
rather than commercials, to pay for their broadcast system.
Later, the CBC (Canadian Broadcast System) was developed in Canada, patterned after the BBC. The
problem in Canada was that a large percent of the population spoke French, which meant that
programming systems in both English and French had to be developed. Although most counties of that era
also adopted government sponsored radio broadcasting, the BBC and CBC are among the few that were
able to insulate programming content from direct government influence. In other words, most countries
used radio to further the political aims of those in power. Today, a great many still do.
Government Regulation
With the advent of paid radio advertising in the United States, sponsors were rather insistent on
having their commercials heard. Since corporate money and profit were involved (which largely finance
politics), the government suddenly started to get quite interested in doing something about the problem. So
the U.S. Congress passed the Radio Act of 1927, which created the Federal Radio Commission (FRC). Its
purpose was to organize the licensing of transmitters, including assigning radio station frequencies. In 1934,
the FRC was reorganized into the agency that now controls U.S. broadcasting, the Federal Communications
Commission (FCC). The FCC's regulatory powers expanded to include telephone and telegraph — and
some years later, television.
Television – miracle in modern mass communication
It was not much later that people heard radio as one top and fast means of communication, that
scientists brought a device in the middle which along the voice could support images and events unfolded in
front of the people as a real life occurrence.
Championed in 1927, the invention of TV took hardly ten years to assume a regular shape as one strong
source of mass communication. The 2nd World War towards the end of third decade of the last century,
however, halted progress on this most modern mean of communication, the end of war saw a rapid
advancement in telecommunication in which the transmission of the images ranked at the top. In most
countries the TV stations were set up, regulations enacted and sets were sold in high number by the end of
forth decade of the century. Next decade saw colored TV sets and transmissions and use of remote
controls. Pakistan had its first TV station in Lahore in November 1964.
Computer
The world had not yet fully exploited the TV as the strongest organ of mass communication that
unending research and developments in the field of science and technology brought computers – internet,
so to say, for people who wanted to be beneficiaries of mass communication. Computers which were
introduced on limited scale in early 1960 for the purposes of communication and fast data processing
became in 1990s the major source of communication across the world.
LESSON 13
MASS MEDIA – HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Before we count on various forms of mass media and its impact on the growth of societies and its
importance in the contemporary world, it is pertinent to see in little more detail how it all began under
circumstances which seem difficult to believe in modern times.
Mankind has always been interested in knowing about the physical things around and the ideas on the
human life as structured by the intellectuals of the day. The only problem was the missing link of mass
medium which should work as a conduit to transport feelings of scholars to others.
There is no trace available as how people from distant territories would exchange views and information by
the sixth century. There is a general impression that it would have been through the travelers and war
expeditions that might fetch information about far flung parts of the world. But traveling was no easy
business and in the absence of maps and knowledge of geography and routes only few would dare to
explore the world and return safely back to their hometown. Since recorded history is not available of those
times it is left only to our imagination how mass communication would have been going around the
civilizations which were old and developed enough to assume a shape of an organized society.
The availability of languages was only ample to accomplish the task of limited scale inter-personal
communication. Sending a message to many was still an enigma.
A breakthrough was made by the invention of paper but it was still far from the concept of mass
communication.
Books – first fascination towards mass media
It is not known as what the first book was or when exactly it saw light of the day. Traces are
available to say with some certainty that in the 7th century people had some idea about books. Though scant
and written on very limited topics, these books can be symbolized as the pioneer in mass communication as
they were able, though on a very limited scale, to carry message to many others irrespective of cast, color,
religion, rich or poor.
Four early Periods in the History of the Books
• 7th to 13th Century: The age of religious "manuscript" book production. Books in this period are
entirely constructed by hand, and are largely religious texts whose creation is meant as an act of
worship.
• 13th to 15th Century: The secularization of book production. Books are beginning to be produced
that do not serve as objects of worship, but that try to explain something about the observable
world. The difficulty with the spread of such knowledge was that production is still taking place via
pre-print - manuscript - methods.
The production of secular books is driven by two things:
The rise of universities in Europe, spreading from Italy.
The return of the crusaders in the 13th century, who bring with them texts from
Byzantium. These books, written during the Greek and Roman periods in history, focus on
this-world concerns.
• 15th to 16th Century: The first printed books. These are print versions of traditional works like the
Bible, books of hours (prayer books) and the religious calendars.
• 16th to 17th Century: New information is put into books that have important consequences on
European life and society.
Book - from hand-written to printing
The 7th to the 9th century was the heyday of the "illuminated manuscript". Production of these
works took place in the monasteries scattered across Europe. These religious retreats were the repositories
of those texts of Greece and Rome which survived in Europe. Monks in the monasteries made copies of
the books in their care - both religious and secular manuscripts. However, they did not contribute much
more to the advancement of that intellectual tradition, because they were not engaged in thinking about the
relationship between the works in their care and the world outside the monastery.
During this time, the production of Bibles was the place where the
arts of the monastic scribes, and later lay artists, flowered. It was here
that the most elaborate and beautiful illumination found its outlet and
the manuscript books from this period represent the height of the art
of decoration.
An illuminated manuscript is the Irish Book of Kells:
The image shown here is an eight-circle cross - one of the central
motifs of this manuscript, all of which focus on aspects of Christ's life and message. According to historian
Meehan, the Book of Kells is the most lavishly decorated of any manuscript produced between the 7th and
9th centuries.
The most important thing about the manuscript books of this period is that they were objects of religious
veneration. They were seen as consecrated objects. Their creation was an act of religious devotion. The
monks, who sat for years, working on single chapters of the Bible, were not reproducing books. They were
making the word of God manifest in the world.
This is the "carpet page" from the Book of Durrow, created around 680 A.D. The
woven pattern on this page is called "interlace" and exhibits both zoomorphic and
abstract elements in its design.
The detail of interlace in the Book of Durrow is more refined by the time the
illuminators get to the creation of the Book of Kells. In the Book of Durrow, the
interlace covers the page, in the Book of Kells, it becomes part of larger images.
In this detail from the Book of Kells, showing the heads of lions
and chalices spouting vines, we can more clearly see the
zoomorphic aspects of interlace.
However, in interlacing, the interweaving of the bodies of snakes
and lions, of peacock and fishes, chalices and vines, is not
intended to be a naturalistic representation of the existing world. These images are schematic and symbolic.
The images are meant to represent some aspect of Christ's life.
We think of modern books as being illustrated, but the illustration and photographs, the images, are usually
distinct from the text. In these early manuscripts dedicated to God, the two were not so separate.
Book of Durrow
First page of Saint Jerome's translation of the four gospels into Vulgate.
Book of Kells
First page of a genealogy of Christ
If you look carefully at these pages, you can see that the decoration is carried into the text. There is continuity between the words
and the decoration, a continuity that suggests that the illuminated religious manuscript is an attempt to convey the beauty of
God's message to mankind.
Early analysis on manuscripts
For all their beauty, as mentioned above, the manuscripts of the monasteries did little to affect life
in Europe. Primarily this comes about as a consequence of the inaccessibility of the monastic libraries.
Instead of books being openly available as they are today, manuscript books were mostly locked up in
monasteries strewn across Europe. Given the amount of time and energy and financial resources that went
into their production, books were far too valuable to make available to the general public. So there was no
way to use them for scholarship, even the few secular texts that may have been available.
This problem was compounded by the lack of a uniform cataloging system in the monasteries. So, even if
one did have access to the library of a monastery, there was no way of knowing what was in the collection,
or where it might be located.
The period between the 13th and 16th centuries saw the rise of a print-dominated society, one that moved
away from the Church's monopoly of information that existed during the manuscript book period. This was
initially fueled by the reproduction of classic texts of antiquity. It was further fueled by the development of
new kinds of books in science. These factors led to the development of books as elements of propaganda
and religious education. This is not to argue that print drove all those changes. Clearly it did not. There were
social and political and economic changes that made print important. Those changes might not have
happened as quickly or perhaps at all without print.
The shift in consciousness that occurred with this period of history is the rise of the notion that reality
could be represented. This period saw the advent and expansion of a European-dominated world economy
and the beginning of a system of international competition for trade among independent states.
The technology of the printing press, coupled with the surrounding changes in the political/economic
system, wrought changes in the ways in which Europe saw its place in the world.
Ancient history of printing
The original method of printing was block printing, pressing sheets of paper into individually
carved wooden blocks. It is believed that block printing originated in China, and the earliest known printed
text, the Diamond Sutra (a Buddhist scripture, was printed in China in 868 A.D.)
The technique was also known in Europe, where it was mostly used to print Bibles. Because of the
difficulties inherent in carving massive quantities of minute text for every block, and given the levels of
peasant illiteracy at the time, texts such as the "Pauper's Bibles" emphasized illustrations and used words
sparsely. As a new block had to be carved for each page, printing different books was an incredibly time
consuming activity.
Moveable clay and metal type are processes much more efficient than hand copying. The use of movable
type in printing was invented in 1041 AD by Bi Sheng in China. Bi used clay type, which broke easily, but
eventually Goryeo (Korea) sponsored the production of metal type (a type foundry was established by the
Korean government in the early 15th century). Since there are thousands of Chinese characters (Koreans
also used Chinese characters in literature), the benefit of the technique is not as apparent as with alphabetic
based languages.
Movable type did spur, however, additional scholarly pursuits in China and facilitated more creative modes
of printing. Nevertheless, movable type was never extensively used in China until the European style
printing press was introduced.
From China to Germany
Although probably unaware of the Chinese/Korean printing methods (with substantial evidence
for both sides of argument), Gutenberg refined the technique with the first widespread use of movable type,
where the characters are separate parts that are inserted to make the text. Gutenberg is also credited with
the first use of an oil-based ink, and using "rag" paper introduced into Europe from China by way of
Muslims, who had a paper mill in operation in Baghdad as early as 794. Before inventing the printing press
in 1440s, Gutenberg had worked as a goldsmith. Without a doubt, the skills and knowledge of metals that
he learned as a craftsman were crucial to the later invention of the press.
The claim that Gutenberg introduced or invented the printing press in Europe is not accepted by all. The
other candidate advanced is the Dutchman Laurens Janszoon Coster.
LESSON 14
EMERGENCE OF PRINT MEDIA AROUND THE WORLD
As if the world was just waiting a breakthrough in the printing process, people from advance
countries started exploiting the new invention to vent their feeling on both religious as well as secular
matters.
Next hundred years saw a change the world had perhaps not witnessed in the previous thousand years.
More opinions were brought forward, the role of gatekeepers in the world of information was reduced
considerably and new idea-exchange programs started getting very popular all over.
Though it was not the way it appears today, the pioneer work in print as a medium to spread information
was started first by irregular pamphleteering but soon assumed a very formal form of regular publications
during which time tens of thousands of magazines, books, newspapers and newsletters change the
landscape in urban markets across the world.
A glance to early publications
1500s ---- Newssheets appear in Venice, Italy
1605 ----- Relations, France
1690 ----- Public Occurrences, first U.S. Newspaper
1704 ----- John Campbell publishes the Boston News-Letter
1721 ----- The New-England Courant, first printed in 1721, landed publisher James Franklin in jail.
1733 ----- Peter Zenger is put in jail for New York Weekly content, but wins case against New York for
seditious libel
1798 ----- Alien and Sedition Acts forbid criticism of key government officials. Repealed in 1800.
1830s ---- Penny press introduces era of mass communication
1864 ----- Newspapers start using telegraph to transmit news
1848 ----- Associated Press founded
1800s ---- Linotype machines speed up typesetting by making possible the automatic casting of entire lines
of type
1890s ---- Period of yellow journalism. This is followed by era of Jazz Journalism.
Print comes to South Asia
For at least one hundred years people in subcontinent remained unaware of the printing
technology. They, however, had some idea of printed material when ships would come from UK and bring
some newspapers and magazines generally for the Englishmen serving in subcontinent.
In the subcontinent the print media surfaced because of the foreign rulers. India did not know about
printing or mass communication by the middle of 18th century. Since the influence of the English rulers was
more in the South India, most early papers also appeared in the southern cities before the print medium
came to western and northern parts.
Colonial journalism
The history of media in united India is colored by the colonial experience. William Bolts, an exemployee
of the British East India Company attempted to start the first newspaper in India in 1776. Bolts
had to beat a retreat under the disapproving gaze of the Court of Directors of the Company.
Bengal
The Hickey's Bengal Gazette or the Calcutta General Advertiser was started by James Augustus
Hickey in 1780 and is regarded as the first regular publication from the Indian soil. The Gazette, a two-sheet
newspaper, specialized in writing on the private lives of the Sahibs of the Company. He dared even to
mount scurrilous attacks on the Governor-General, Warren Hastings', wife, which soon landed him in hot
waters.
Hickey was sentenced to a 4 months jail term and Rs.500 fine, which did not deter him. After a bitter attack
on the Governor-General and the Chief Justice, Hickey was sentenced to one year in prison and fined
Rs.5000, which finally drove him to penury. These were the first tentative steps of journalism in India.
Calcutta
B. Messink and Peter Reed were pliant publishers of the India Gazette, unlike their infamous
predecessor. The colonial establishment started the Calcutta Gazette. It was followed by another private
initiative the Bengal Journal. The Oriental Magazine of Calcutta Amusement, a monthly magazine made it four
weekly newspapers and one monthly magazine published from Calcutta, now Kolkata.
Madras (Chennai)
The Madras Courier was started in 1785 in the southern stronghold of Madras, which is now called
Chennai. Richard Johnson, its founder, was a government printer. Madras got its second newspaper when,
in 1791, Hugh Boyd, who was the editor of the Courier quit and founded the Hurkaru.
Tragically for the paper, it ceased publication when Boyd died within a year of its founding. It was only in
1795 that competitors to the Courier emerged with the founding of the Madras Gazette followed by the India
Herald. The latter was an "unauthorised" publication, which led to the deportation of its founder
Humphreys. The Madras Courier was designated the purveyor of official information in the Presidency.
In 1878, The Hindu was founded, and played a vital role in promoting the cause of Indian independence
from the colonial yoke. Its founder, Kasturi Ranga Iyengar, was a lawyer, and his son, K Srinivasan assumed
editorship of this pioneering newspaper during for the first half of the 20th century. Today this paper enjoys
the highest circulation in South India, and is among the top five nationally.
Bombay
Bombay, now Mumbai, surprisingly was a late starter - The Bombay Herald came into existence in
1789. Significantly, a year later a paper called the Courier started carrying advertisements in Gujarati. The first
media merger of sorts: The Bombay Gazette, which was started in 1791, merged with the Bombay Herald the
following year. Like the Madras Courier, this new entity was recognized as the publication to carry "official
notifications and advertisements".
'A Chronicle of Media and the State', by Jeebesh Bagchi in the Sarai Reader 2001 is a handy timeline on the
role of the state in the development of media in India for more than a century. Bagchi divides the timeline
into three 'ages'. The Age of Formulation, which starts with the Indian Telegraph Act in 1885 and ends with
the Report of the Sub-Committee on Communication, National Planning Committee in 1948.
Urdu Press
In 1822 the Persian weekly Jam-e-Jahan Numa first time published in Urdu. Some time it publishes
in Urdu, some time in Persian and some time in both the languages. During the earlier days of journalism
newspapers were either weeklies or biweeklies, none of them was a daily. On January 14, 1850 Munshi
Harsukh Rai started weekly Kohinoor. With a circulation of only 350 it was the largest circulated newspaper
of that time. The circulation of other newspapers on that time was only 100 to 200.
Urdu Guide was the first daily newspaper, which was started by Maulvi Kabeeruddin from Kolkata in 1858.
In the very same year as a second daily Roznamcha-e-Punjab started from Lahore. As a first Urdu daily of
Bihar, Dini Bihar started in 1876 from Arah district. Zameendar, which was the best newspaper of that
time, was started in 1903 from Lahore. It was the first newspaper, which used the news from erstwhile news
agencies. This newspaper highly supported the freedom struggle. At that time the circulation of Zameendar
was 30,000. Before Zameendar, in 1884 Munshi Mehar Baksh started a morning (Naseem-e-Subah) and an
evening newspaper (Sham-e-Wisal). Maulvi Saiful Haq started the daily Rahbar-e-Hind from Lahore in
1885. In 1902 Maulvi Sanaullah Khan started the weekly Watan which regularly published for 33 years.
Maulana Muhammed Ali Jauhar started Naqueeb-e-Hamdard in 1912. Later it called only Hamdard. In the
very same year Maulana Abul Kalam Azad started Al-Hilal. After Zameendar it was the largest circulated
newspaper .On March 20, 1919 Mahashai Krishn started Partap. Partap was the first newspaper, which
started supplements.
Newspapers and movement for independence
Before the freedom following newspapers and magazines were started to support the freedom
struggle. Khilafat, Siasat, Ujala, Taj, Roznama-e-Hind, Ajmal, Hilal, Milap, Partap, Tej, Qaumi Awaz, Jung,
Anjam, Inqualab, Nawa-e-Waqt, Hindustan, Aftab, Jumhuriat, Iqbal, Asr-e-Jadeed, Azad-e-Hind, Sandesh,
Vakeel, Khidmat, Musalman, Azad, Paswan Weer Bharat and Al-Jamiath. Jawaharlal Nehru started Qaumi
Awaz from Lucknow in 1945. Later it also started from Patna and Delhi. This time it is publishing only
from Delhi and is in very poor condition. After Indias freedom Hafiz Ali Khan Bahadur started weekly
Daur-e-Jadeed. Jamat-e-Islami Hind started weekly Dawat. This time it is publishing regularly as Bi-weekly.
Dawat has a particular readership and it is very popular among its readers due to its views on current issues.
Maulana Abdul Waheed Siddiqui started Nai Duniya, which is still publishing under the editorship of his
son Shahid Siddiqui. This time it is the famous Urdu weekly in India. Sahara Group Had started monthly
Rashtriya Sahara but later it became daily. This time it is the most popular Urdu daily of North India
publishing simultaneously from Delhi, Lucknow and Gorakhpur. Recently this group has launched a weekly
Aalmi Sahara.
Press in the US today
The print media include all newspapers, newsletters, booklets, pamphlets, magazines, and other
printed publications, especially those that sell advertising space as a means of raising revenue.
In the United States, at present, there are 1745 daily and 7602 weekly newspapers, and 64,000 magazines.
Most print media, with the exception of magazines, are local, although there are some national newspapers
and trade publications that have become quite successful. Magazines, on the other hand, have always been
national, although there is a trend today toward localization and specialization. Also included in print media
category are directories, church and school newspapers and yearbooks, and programs at theater
presentations and sporting events.
Employment
Around 1, 20, 500 people were working in the print industry only after one hundred years of the
first appearance of the US publication in 1690. The size kept on increasing as did many other sections of
specialization. About over two million people directly or indirectly are getting their living from the print
media at present.
Specialization
The media in print which earlier took the responsibility of spreading information only, has matured
over the decades and now providing healthy services in entertainment, education and welfare of mankind.
The business of advertising now knows no limits in financial and employment size and leading to more
avenues of jobs.
LESSON 15
TELEGRAPH DOES MIRACLE IN DISTANCE COMMUNICATION
TELEX AND TELEPHONE ENTHRALL PRINT COMMUNICATION
It was undoubtedly a historic day when scientist Samuel Morse on May 14, 1844 successfully established a
link between Baltimore and Washington DC by transmitting the first tele message ‗What hath God wrought‘
on a device invented by him and which we know as telegraph today.
By this date, it was almost 150 years that print media was active but was not finding way to reach to a large
audience in a short time. There were no rails and motorcars. Transport system was as fast as fresh horses
could maintain it. In rains and harsh weathers communication was blocked.
The news of sending message by wire to a reasonable distance in real time was received with great warmth
by the print industry across the world which was assessing a bright future for it was not possible to reach
larger number of people and at a distance not possible to cover before.
How telegraph system came about?
Fires, smoke signals, and drums have been used since antiquity to transmit messages over long
distances. The term telegraph was coined by scientist Claude Chappe to describe such methods, a version of
which was invented by him and his brothers to signal each other while in school. In 1793 Chappe
introduced in France a form of this system for the transmission of messages based on stations with towers
using a code to transmit signals by the position of crossed arms.
The idea of the electric telegraph was born when the first experimenters with electricity noticed that electric
charges could travel through wires over distances. In 1753 in Scotland Charles Morrison described a system
of 26 wires for transmitting the 26 letters of the alphabet. Electrostatic charges traveling through these wires
deflected suspended balls at the receiving station. However, this was never developed as a practical system.
During the early 19th century, several scientists experimented with the transmission of messages through
electric wires. At this time scientists had gained access to a steady, low-voltage source of electricity. Karl
Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Weber transmitted signals over wires and detected them with sensitive
galvanometers around 1833. In England Charles Wheatstone developed a telegraph with a five-needle
galvanometer that indicated the transmitted letters. The Wheatstone telegraph actually came into use,
linking Liverpool with Manchester in 1839. In Germany Carl Steinheil developed a telegraph that printed
coded messages on a ribbon.
The electromagnet, a magnet whose field appears when current is on and disappears when it is off, was
discovered in the 1820s. The American painter Samuel Morse first became acquainted with an
electromagnet when it was shown to him by a young chemist he met on a transatlantic ship. Morse realized
that a magnet turning on and off by transmission of a current from a distant source could be used to send
messages. He soon enlisted America's greatest scientist of the time, Joseph Henry, to develop ways to cause
an electromagnet to work at a distance. The electric telegraph became truly functional with the idea of using
a code of dots and dashes to transmit the letters of the alphabet. Despite this technical help, Morse is given
credit for the invention because he put together a practical system and got people to accept it.
Morse patented his telegraph in 1837 and officially inaugurated a link between Baltimore, Maryland, and
Washington, DC, on May 14, 1844, by transmitting the message "What hath God wrought." The message
was transmitted by a telegraph key, a special switch that allows an electric current to be rapidly switched in
and out; it was printed in the dot-dash code on ribbons of paper.
Morse's telegraph quickly spread in the United States, and later it superseded the existing systems of
Wheatstone and Steinheil in Europe. In 1862, 240,000 km (150,000 mi) of telegraph cable covered the
world, of which 77,000 km (48,000 mi) were in the United States and 24,000 km (15,000 mi) in Great
Britain. Europe and the United States became linked by an underwater telegraph cable in 1866.
All rapid long-distance communication within private and public sectors depended on the telegraph
throughout the remainder of the nineteenth century. Applications were many: Railroads used the Morse
telegraph to aid in the efficiency and safety of railroad operations, the Associated Press to dispatch news,
industry for the transmission of information about stocks and commodities, and the general public to send
messages. The telegraph's military value was demonstrated during the Civil War (1861–1865) as a way to
control troop deployment and intelligence. However, the rival technologies of the telephone and radio
would soon replace the telegraph as a primary source of communication.
Days of the Morse Code
Data was transmitted at about four to
six bits per second in the latter half of the
1800s, which was as fast as a human hand could
tap out Morse code. The unit on the right is the
telegraph key. A metal bar on the receiver (left)
simply banged against another bar when the
current passed through, creating a clicking
sound.
The print medium was still enjoying from the
facility of telegraph that another great facility was made available to it as the period of industrial growth got
into top gear in the 19th century. The new invention was telephone – a point to point messaging facility by
spoken words. The information conveying system by reporters of the print media and talking to men-inpower
for obtaining information and passing on to millions others the next day seemed as a dream come
true.
Telephone in historic perspective
Throughout history, people have devised methods for communicating over long distances. The
earliest methods involved crude systems such as drum beating or smoke signaling. These systems evolved
into optical telegraphy and by the early 1800s, electric telegraphy. The first simple telephones, which were
comprised of a long string and two cans, were known in the early eighteenth century.
A working electrical voice-transmission system was first demonstrated by Johann Philipp Reis in 1863. His
machine consisted of a vibrating membrane that opened or closed an electric circuit. While Reis only used
his machine to demonstrate the nature of sound, other inventors tried to find more practical applications of
this technology. They were found by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876 when he was awarded a patent for the
first operational telephone. This invention proved to revolutionize the way people communicate throughout
the world.
Bell's interest in telephony was primarily derived from his background in vocal physiology and his speech
instruction to the deaf. His breakthrough experiment occurred on June 2, 1875. He and his assistant,
Thomas Watson, were working on a harmonic telegraph. When a reed stuck on Watson's transmitter an
intermittent current was converted to a continuous current. Bell was able to hear the sound on his receiver
confirming his belief that sound could be transmitted and reconverted through an electric wire by using a
continuous electric current.
The original telephone design that Bell patented was much different than the phone we know today. In a
real sense, it was just a modified version of a telegraph. The primary difference was that it could transmit
true sound. Bell continued to improve upon his design. After two years, he created a magnetic telephone
which was the precursor to modern phones. This design consisted of a transmitter, receiver, and a magnet.
The transmitter and receiver each contained a diaphragm, which is a metal disk. During a phone call, the
vibrations of the caller's voice caused the diaphragm in the transmitter to move. This motion was
transferred along the phone line to the receiver. The receiving diaphragm began vibrating thereby producing
sound and completing the call.
While the magnetic phone was an important breakthrough, it had significant drawbacks. For example,
callers had to shout to overcome noise and voice distortions. Additionally, there was a time lapse in the
transmission which resulted in nearly incoherent conversations. These problems were eventually solved as
the telephone underwent numerous design changes. The first phones made available to consumers used a
single microphone. This required the user to speak into it and then put it to the ear to listen. Thomas
Edison introduced a model that had a moveable listening earpiece and stationary speaking tube. When
placing a call, the receiver was lifted and the user was connected directly to an operator who would then
switch wires manually to transmit. In 1878, the first manual telephone exchange was opened. It served 21
customers in New Haven, Connecticut. Use of the telephone spread rapidly and in 1891, the first automatic
number calling mechanism was introduced.
Long-distance service was first made available in 1881. However, the transmission rates were not good and
it was difficult to hear. In 1900, two workers at Bell System designed loading coils that could minimize
distortions. In 1912, the vacuum tube was adapted to the phone as an amplifier. This made it possible to
have a transcontinental phone line, first demonstrated in 1915. In 1956, a submarine cable was laid across
the Atlantic to allow transatlantic telephone communication. The telecommunication industry was
revolutionized in 1962 when orbiting communication satellites were utilized. In 1980, a fiber-optic system
was introduced, again revolutionizing the industry.
Background
Telephones still operate on the same basic principles that Bell introduced over one hundred years
ago. If a person wishes to make a call, they pick up the handset. This causes the phone to be connected to a
routing network. When the numbers are pressed on a touch-tone keypad, signals are sent down the phone
line to the routing station. Here, each digit is recognized as a combination of tone frequencies. The specific
number combination causes a signal to be sent to another phone causing it to ring. When that phone is
picked up, a connection between the two phones is initiated.
The mouthpiece acts as a microphone. Sound waves from the user's voice cause a thin, plastic disk inside
the phone to vibrate. This changes the distance between the plastic disk and another metal disk. The
intensity of an electric field between the two disks is changed as a result and a varying electric current is sent
down the phone line. The receiver on the other phone picks up this current. As it enters the receiver, it
passes through a set of electromagnets. These magnets cause a metal diaphragm to vibrate. This vibration
reproduces the voice that initiated the current. An amplifier in the receiver makes it easier to hear. When
one of the phones is hung up the electric current is broken, causing all of the routing connections to be
released.
The system of transmission presented describes what happens during a local call. It varies slightly for other
types of calls such as long distance or cellular. Long distance calls are not always connected directly through
wires. In some cases, the signal is converted to a satellite dish signal and transmitted via a satellite. For
cellular phones, the signal is sent to a cellular antenna. Here, it is sent via radio waves to the appropriate cell
phone.
With the combination of telegraph and telephone systems, scientists worked to hand over print media
another great facility in the form of telex
Telex
By 1935, message routing was the last great barrier to full automation. Large telegraphy providers
began to develop systems that used telephone-like rotary dialing to connect teletypes. These machines were
called "telex". Telex machines first performed rotary-telephone-style pulse dialing, and then sent baud dots
code. This "type A" telex routing functionally automated message routing.
The first wide-coverage telex network was implemented in Germany during the 1930s. The network was
used to communicate within the government. At the then-blinding rate of 45.5 bits per second, up to 25
telex channels could share a single long-distance telephone channel, making telex the least expensive
method of reliable long-distance communication.
LESSON 16
TYPES OF PRINT MEDIA
With a sort of boon coming in the world of print communication with the availability of printing
press, telegraph, telephone and telex, the publishing industry made hey while the sun was shinning.
The first hundred years was the time when the print industry tried to comprehend the new situation and
shaped itself into a regular and formal sector but from the start of the 19th century, print media in most
countries started specializing in certain areas. Since business in the form of advertisements in the print was
also flourishing, the media enjoyed a great deal of financial comfort and provided jobs to tens of thousands
of people across the globe.
The publishing industry, a synonym with print media, could be classified in general terms into three distinct
categories:
• Newspapers
• Magazines
• Books
In the following paragraphs we will see these three areas with more details.
Newspapers
It took about 150 years from the invention of printing press in the middle of 15th century that the
world witnessed first regular publication which could be defined as a newspaper.
Although there have been claims by many to be decorated as first newspaper like Mixed News in China in
710, Notizie Scritte, a monthly newspaper for which readers pay a ―gazetta‖, or small coin by Venetian
government in 1556 etc, the World Association of Newspapers held ―Relation‖, as the first newspaper
published in France in 1605. By this reckoning the newspapers‘ history is 400 years old. The Relation
followed a list of news papers from all around the world. Here is a brief account of some popular papers:
1621 ---- In London, the newspaper Courante is published.
1631 ---- The Gazette, the first French newspaper, is founded.
1639 ---- First American colonial printing press.
1645 ---- World‘s oldest newspaper still in circulation, Post-och Inrikes Tidningar, is published in Sweden
1690 ---- Publick Occurrences is the first newspaper published in America when it appears in Boston. The
editor, Benjamin Harris, stated he would issue the paper ―once a month, or, if any Glut of Occurrences
happen, oftener.‖ The royal authority, wary of publications printed without its express consent, suppresses
the newspaper after only one issue.
1704 ---- Daniel Defoe, the author of Robinson Crusoe and often recognized as the world‘s first journalist,
begins to publish the Review, a periodical covering European affairs.
1798 ---- Alois Sedenfelder Invents Lithography. Although invented over two centuries ago, off set
lithography first gained popularity in the 1960‘s, and is now the industry standard.
1803 ---- Australia‘s military government publishes the Sydney Gazette and New South Wales Advertiser, the
country‘s first newspaper. This is only fifteen years after the colony of convicts had been established in
Sydney Cove.
1812 ---- Friedrich Koenig invents the Steam Powered Cylinder Press. In 1814, John Walter, publisher of
The Times in London, began to assemble the new press in secrecy, fearing that his pressmen might riot if
they discovered his plans. On the night of November 28, 1814, Walter took his pressmen away from their
hand presses with the excuse that he was expecting important news from the continent. He then used
Koenig‘s presses to produce the entire print run of The Times -- at an output of 1,100 sheets per hour.
1844 ---- Telegraph is invented.
1851 ---- Reuters – news agency, is established.
1900 ----Vladimir Lenin founds Iskra, in Leipzig, Germany. This revolutionary newspaper is to become a
major tool for Communist propaganda.
1903 ---- Alfred Harmsworth (later Lord North cliffe) develops the first tabloid newspaper, the Daily Mirror,
in London. The Daily Mirror introduced the concept of the ―exclusive‖ interview. The first was with Lord
Minto, the new Viceroy of India, in 1905.
As the newspapers came to age, they assumed different shapes and assigned themselves different jobs.
Contents
General-interest newspapers are usually journals of current news. Those can include :
Political events
Crime
Business
Culture
Sports
Opinions (either editorials, columns, or political cartoons)
Newspapers use photographs to illustrate stories; they use editorial cartoonists, usually to illustrate writing
that is opinion, rather than news.
Some specific features a newspaper may include are:
• weather news and forecasts
• an advice column
• critical reviews of movies, plays, restaurants, etc.
• editorial opinions
• a gossip column
• comic strips and other entertainment, such as crosswords and horoscopes
• a sports column or section
• a humor column or section
• a food column
Types of newspapers
Besides the contents, the newspapers also specialize in their type.
• International newspapers
• Weekly newspapers
• Sunday newspapers
• National newspaper
• Local newspaper
Circulation
A big issue with newspapers is always the size of their circulation. This also determines the revenue
it can generate, and number of people it can employ with it. The mass circulation also gives a newspaper a
weigh in a number of local and national matters and its editorial staff enjoys a unique freedom in more than
one ways.
Some top ranking newspapers circulation-wise are as follow:
Rank Title Country Circulation (000)
1. Yomiuri Shimbun Japan 14,067
2. The Asahi Shimbun Japan 12,121
3. Mainichi Shimbun Japan 5,587
4. Nihon Keizai Shimbun Japan 4,635
5. Chunichi Shimbun Japan 4,512
6. Bild Germany 3,867
7. Sankei Shimbun Japan 2,757
8. Canako Xiaoxi (Beijing) China 2,627
9. People‘s Daily China 2,509
10. Tokyo Sports Japan 2,425
Magazine
A magazine is a periodical publication containing a variety of articles, generally financed by
advertising, purchased by readers, or both.
Magazines are typically published weekly, biweekly, monthly, bimonthly or quarterly, with a date on the
cover that is later than the date it is actually published. They are often printed in colour on coated paper,
and are bound with a soft cover.
Types of magazines
Art magazines
Business magazines
Music magazines
Computer magazines
Children's magazines
Health and fitness magazines
History magazines
Humor magazines
Inspirational magazines
Men's magazines
Women's magazines
Luxury magazines
News magazines
Online magazines
Pulp magazines
Pornographic magazines
Regional magazines
Satirical magazines
Teen magazines
Consumer magazines
Consumer magazines are aimed at the public and are usually available through retail outlets. They
range from general-interest titles such as Time, Esquire and Cosmopolitan, which appeal to a broad spectrum of
readers, to highly specialist titles covering particular hobbies, leisure pursuits or other interests.
Business magazines
Many business magazines are available only, or predominantly, on subscription. In some cases these
subscriptions are available to any person prepared to pay; in others, free subscriptions are available to
readers who meet a set of criteria established by the publisher. This practice, known as controlled circulation, is
intended to guarantee to advertisers that the readership is relevant to their needs.
All magazines have some elements in common, even if they are a listings magazine or a simple advertising
vehicle. The main features of content in magazines mainly consist of the cover page features, reviews,
problem pages, interviews, advertisements, competitions and some form of gossip. Other common
elements are; advice columns, campaigns, do it yourself features, in our next issues, makeovers, letters‘ page,
opinion columns, and contents pages.
The main features of presentation of magazines are the cover pages, the layout and the design photographs
and illustrations use of colour, an insight of the actual magazine and visual narrative. The better the visual
narrative of the magazine, the more it will appeal to its specific audience.
Books
Though books existed before print technology, they were limited in number and their readership
was also confined to few.
A book is a collection of paper, parchment or other material with a piece of text written on them, bound
together along one edge, usually within covers. Each side of a sheet is called a page and a single sheet within
a book may be called a leaf. A book is also a literary work or a main division of such a work
Books became part of the mass media after the printing process was invented. Now they are in the reach of
almost everyone and could cover any distance on the planet. Their topics are varied and their value could be
judged from the fact that most libraries in the world are due to books rather than other published material.
When writing systems were invented in ancient civilizations, nearly everything that could be written upon—
stone, clay, tree bark, metal sheets—was used for writing. Alphabetic writing emerged in Egypt around 1800
BC.
Scroll
Egyptian papyrus showing the god Osiris and the weighing of the
heart
In Ancient Egypt, papyrus (a form of paper made by weaving the stems of
the papyrus plant, then pounding the woven sheet with a hammer like tool)
was used for writing maybe as early as from First Dynasty, but first
evidence is from the account books of King Neferirkare Kakai of the Fifth
Dynasty (about 2400 BC).
Middle Ages
Manuscripts
Before the invention and adoption of the printing press, almost all books were copied by hand,
which made books expensive and comparatively rare. Smaller monasteries had usually only some dozen
books, medium sized a couple hundred. By the ninth century larger
collections held around 500 volumes.
Wood block printing
A 15th century incunabulum
Notice the blind-tooled cover, cornerbosses and clasps for holding the book
shut.
Innovations in casting the type based on a matrix and hand mould. This
invention made books comparatively affordable (although still quite expensive
for most people) and more widely available. It is estimated that in Europe
about 1,000 various books were created per year before the development of the printing press.
Paper
Though papermaking in Europe had begun around the 11th century, up until the beginning of 16th
century vellum and paper were produced congruent to one another, vellum being the more expensive and
durable option. Printers or publishers would often issue the same publication on both materials, to cater to
more than one market. As was the case with many medieval inventions, paper was first made in China, as
early as 200 B.C., and reached Europe through Muslim territories. At first made of rags, the industrial
revolution changed paper-making practices, allowing for paper to be made
out of wood pulp.
Modern world
A collection of Penguin Books
With the rise of printing in the fifteenth century, books were
published in limited numbers and were quite valuable. The need to protect
these precious commodities was evident. One of the earliest references to the use of bookmarks was in
1584 when the Queen's Printer, Christopher Barker, presented Queen Elizabeth I with a fringed silk
bookmark. Common bookmarks in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were narrow silk ribbons bound
into the book at the top of the spine and extended below the lower edge of the page. The first detachable
bookmarks began appearing in the 1850's and were made from silk, embroidered fabrics or leather. Not
until the 1880's, did paper and other materials become more common.
Steam-powered printing presses became popular in the early 1800s. These machines could print 1,100
sheets per hour, but workers could only set 2,000 letters per hour. Monotype and linotype presses were
introduced in the late 19th century. They could set more than 6,000 letters per hour and an entire line of
type at once.
The centuries after the 15th century were thus spent on improving both the printing press and the
conditions for freedom of the press through the gradual relaxation of restrictive censorship laws. In mid-
20th century, Europe book production had risen to over 200,000 titles per year.
Collections of books
In the Middle Ages, monasteries and universities had also
libraries that could be accessible to general public. Typically not the
whole collection was available to public; the books could not be
borrowed and often were chained to reading stands to prevent theft.
Celsus Library was built in 135 A.D. and could house around 12,000
scrolls.
The beginning of modern public library begins around 15th century.
The advent of paperback books in the 20th century led to an explosion of popular publishing. Paperback
books made owning books affordable for many people.
LESSON 17
PRESS FREEDOM, LAWS AND ETHICS – NEW DEBATE RAGING STILL HARD
With the print media taking the world by storm and having enormous influence on cultures and
hitting the government policies hard, debate of its use and misuse was a natural phenomenon.
First US newspaper was titled Publick Occurrences, and came out in 1690. It only printed one issue, however,
as it was shut down by colonial officials, possibly due to censorship and control issues. It followed the two
column format, and was a single sheet, printed on both sides.
In the early part it were the governments which prevailed and successfully harassed the printers and the
publishers but as the print media got backing of society and organized itself, it started getting difficult for
the government to twist media arms at will.
When the tug of war looked getting out of hand, it was decided that parliaments should come into play and
enact laws which discipline the media. The laws were framed against which started press freedom
campaigns. Some organizations, from within the media took in onto themselves to develop a code of ethics
for self-accountability. The process of making laws against press, the struggle of press freedom along with
practicing media ethics continued and rages strong even today.
Here we will examine this debate to some detail.
Press laws
Press Laws are the laws concerning the licensing of books and the liberty of expression in all
products of the printing-press, especially newspapers. The liberty of the press has always been regarded by
political writers as of supreme importance.
Before the invention of printing, the Church assumed the right to control the expression of all opinion
distasteful to her. The Church and universities soon found the output of books beyond their control. In
1496 Pope Alexander VI began to be restrictive, and in 1501 he issued a bill against unlicensed printing,
which introduced the principle of censorship. Between 1524 and 1548 the Imperial Diet in Germany drew
up various stringent regulations; and in France, prohibited by edict, under penalty of death, the printing of
books.
Censorship
Censorship was either restrictive or corrective, i.e., it interfered to restrict or prevent publication, or
it enforced penalties after publication. Repression of free discussion was regarded as so necessary a part of
government that Sir Thomas More in his Utopia makes it punishable with death for a private individual to
criticize the conduct of the ruling power.
Under Elizabeth the Star Chamber assumed the right to confine printing to London, Oxford and
Cambridge, to limit the number of printers and presses, to prohibit all publications issued without proper
license, and to enter houses to search for unlicensed presses and publications.
Legislation on press laws
Over seventy countries around the world have implemented some form of freedom of information
legislation, which sets rules on access to information or records held by government bodies, the oldest being
Sweden's Freedom of the Press Act of 1766.
Many more countries are working towards introducing such laws, and many regions of countries with
national legislation have local laws - for example, all states of the US have access laws as well as the national
legislation. In general, such laws define a legal process by which government information is available to the
public.
In many countries there are vague constitutional guarantees for the right of access to information, but
usually these are unused unless specific legislation to support them.
These laws may also be described as open records or (especially in the United States) sunshine laws. A
related concept is open meetings legislation, which allows the public access to government meetings, not
just to the records of them. In many countries, privacy or data protection laws may be part of the freedom
of information legislation; the concepts are often closely tied together in political discourse.
A basic principle behind most freedom of information legislation is that the burden of proof falls on the
body asked for information, not the person asking for it. The requester does not usually have to give an
explanation for their request, but if the information is not disclosed a valid reason has to be given.
Laws in some countries- examples
In Australia, the Freedom of Information Act 1982 was passed at the federal level in 1982, applying
to all "ministers, departments and public authorities" of the Commonwealth.
There is similar legislation in all states and territories:
• Australian Capital Territory, the Freedom of Information Act 1989
• New South Wales, the Freedom of Information Act 1989
• Northern Territory, the Information Act 2003
• Queensland, the Freedom of Information Act 1992
• South Australia, the Freedom of Information Act 1991
• Tasmania, the Freedom of Information Act 1991
• Victoria, the Freedom of Information Act 1982
• Western Australia, the Freedom of Information Act 1992
In Canada, the Access to Information Act allows citizens to demand records from federal bodies. This is
enforced by the Information Commissioner of Canada. There is also a complementary Privacy Act,
introduced in 1983. The purpose of the Privacy Act is to extend the present laws of Canada that protect the
privacy of individuals with respect to personal information about themselves held by a federal government
institution and that provide individuals with a right of access to that information. It is a Crown copyright.
Complaints for possible violations of the Act may be reported to the Privacy Commissioner of Canada.
European Union
Regulation 1049/2001 of the European Parliament and the Council of 30 May 2001 regarding
public access to European Parliament, Council and Commission documents grants a right of access to
documents of the three institutions to any Union citizen and to any natural or legal person residing, or
having its registered office, in a Member State. "Document" is defined broadly and it is assumed that all
documents, even if classified, may be subject to right of access unless it falls under one of the exceptions. If
access is refused, the applicant is allowed a confirmatory request. A complaint against a refusal can be made
with the European Ombudsman or an appeal can be brought before the Court of First Instance.
In addition, the Directive 2003/98/EC of the European Parliament and the Council of 17 November 2003
on the re-use of public sector information sets out the rules and practices for accessing public sector
information resources for further exploitation
India
The Indian Right to Information Act was introduced to the Indian Parliament in July 2000. It came
into effect on 12 Oct 2005. Under this law the information has become a fundamental right of the citizen.
Under this law all Government Bodies or Government funded agencies have to designate a Public
Information officer (PIO). The PIO's responsibility is to ensure that information requested is disclosed to
the petitioner within 30 days or within 48 hours in case of information concerning the life and liberty of a
person. The law was inspired by previous legislations from selected states (among them Maharastra, Goa,
Karnataka, Delhi etc) that allowed the right to information (to different degrees) to citizens about activities
of any State Government body.
A number of high profile disclosures revealed corruptions in various government schemes such scams in
Public Distribution Systems (ration stores), disaster relief, construction of highways etc. The law itself has
been hailed as a landmark in India's drive towards more openness and accountability.
United States
In the United States the Freedom of Information Act was signed into law by President Lyndon B.
Johnson on July 4, 1966 and went into effect the following year. The Electronic Freedom of Information
Act Amendments was signed by President Bill Clinton on October 2, 1996.
The Act applies only to federal agencies. However, all of the states, as well as the District of Columbia and
some territories, have enacted similar statutes to require disclosures by agencies of the state and of local
governments, though some are significantly broader than others. Many combine this with Open Meetings
legislation, which requires government meetings to be held publicly.
Pakistan
President Pervez Musharraf promulgated the Freedom of Information Ordinance 2002 in October
2002. The law allows any citizen access to public records held by a public body of the federal government
including ministries, departments, boards, councils, courts and tribunals. It does not apply to government
owned corporations or provincial governments. The bodies must respond within 21 days.
Colonial period in subcontinent – Laws in the 19th & 20th century
• The Registration of books and newspaper act,1867
• The Press (emergency power) act 1931
• The States (protection against disaffection) act, 1922
• The Foreign relations act 1932
• The Criminal law amendment act 1932
• The States protection act, 1934
• The Post office act 1898
• The Official secret act
• The Press and Publication Ordinance of 1963
Constitution of 1973
Article 19
This article reads as follows:
―Every citizen shall have the right of freedom of speech and expression, and there shall be freedom of the
press, subject to any reasonable restrictions imposed by law in the interest of the glory of Islam or the
integrity, security, or defense of Pakistan or any part thereof, friendly relations with foreign states, public
order, decency or morality or in relation to the contempt of court, defamation or incitement to an office.‖
Press Council of Pakistan
The law states that the Code, which deal with issues as morality, plagiarism, fairness, accuracy,
privacy, sensationalism, confidentiality and privilege, will allow journalists to operate ―in accordance with
the canons of decency, principles of professional conduct and precepts of freedom and responsibility, to
serve the public interest by ensuring an unobstructed flow of news and views to the people envisaging that
honesty, accuracy, objectivity and fairness shall be the guidelines for the press while serving the public
interest.‖
The Council will be an independent corporate entity, with its own staff, secretariat and budget and will be
financed through an annual governmental grant-in-aid as well as other grants and donations and such fees
as it may levy from registered newspapers and news agencies. This council is considered to be a euphemistic
connotation of censorship.
Freedom of Information Ordinance 2002
The freedom of information ordinance introduced in 2002 contains some positive features
acknowledging citizens right to know. However, the 21st day time frame for the release of information and
inclusion of courts and tribunals, among those require disclosing information mar its true spirit. Large
amounts of information are also not subject to disclosure under the ordinance, largely undermining the
public‘s right to know. Instead of applying to all records held by public bodies, the ordinance provides a,
restrictive list of public records subject to disclosure.
Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, states:
"Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; the right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference
and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media regardless of frontiers."
Activities
Article 19 monitors threats to free expression around the globe, lobbies governments to adopt laws
that conform to international standards on freedom of expression; and drafts legal standards which
strengthen media, public broadcasting, free expression and access to government-held information.
It also produces legal analysis and critiques of national laws, including media laws; provides legal counsel on
behalf of individuals or groups whose rights have been violated; and provides capacity-building support to
non-governmental organizations, judges and lawyers, journalists, media owners, media lawyers, public
officials and parliamentarians.
Article 19‘s work is organized into five Regional Programmes – Africa, Asia, Europe, Latin America, and
the Middle East – and a Law Programme. It works in partnership with 52 organizations in more than 30
countries around the world.
Article 19 is a founding member of the Freedom of Information Advocates (FOIA) Network, a global
forum that aims to support campaigning, advocacy and fundraising on access to information through the
exchange of information, ideas and strategies. The FOIA Network also aims to facilitate the formation of
regional or international coalitions to address access to information issues.
Media Ethics
The issue of self censor has always been in view of the media people. And in particular it was
observed that some elements amongst the media were responsible for maligning the name of this
profession, many a media bodies prepared a code of ethics. The code is supposed to be practiced in letter
and spirit to ensure that the weapon of media is not proving detrimental for the society.
A specimen of the code is given below:
DECLARATION OF PRINCIPLES ON THE CONDUCT OF JOURNALISTS
Adopted by the Second World Congress of the International Federation of Journalists at Bordeaux on 25-28 April 1954 and
amended by the 18th IFJ World Congress in Helsingör on 2-6 June 1986.
This international declaration is proclaimed as a standard of professional conduct for journalists engaged in
gathering, transmitting, disseminating and commenting on news and information and in describing events.
1. Respect for truth and for the right of the public to truth is the first duty of the journalist.
2. In pursuance of this duty, the journalist shall at all times defend the principles of freedom in the
honest collection and publication of news, and of the right of fair comment and criticism.
3. The journalist shall report only in accordance with facts of which he/ she knows the origin. The
journalist shall not suppress essential information or falsify documents.
4. The journalist shall use only fair methods to obtain news, photographs and documents.
5. The journalist shall do the utmost to rectify any published information which is found to be
harmfully inaccurate.
6. The journalist shall observe professional secrecy regarding the source of information obtained in
confidence.
7. The journalist shall be aware of the danger of discrimination being furthered by the media, and
shall do the utmost to avoid facilitating such discrimination based on, among other things, race,
sex, sexual orientation, language, religion, political or other opinions, and national or social origins.
8. The journalist shall regard as grave professional offences the following:
• Plagiarism.
• Malicious misrepresentation.
• Calumny, slander, libel, unfounded accusations.
• Acceptance of a bribe in any form in consideration of either publication or suppression.
9. Journalists worthy of that name shall deem in their duty to observe faithfully the principles stated
above. Within the general law of each country the journalist shall recognize in professional matters
the jurisdiction of colleagues only, to the exclusion of every kind of interference by governments or
others.
LESSON 18
INDUSTRIALIZATION OF PRINT PROCESSES
Development of the printing press
The original method of printing was block printing, pressing sheets of paper into individually
carved wooden blocks also called xylography. It is believed that block printing originated in China, and the
earliest known printed text, the Diamond Sutra (a Buddhist scripture was printed in China in 868 A.D.
The technique was also known in Europe, where it was mostly used to print Bibles. Because of the
difficulties inherent in carving massive quantities of minute text for every block, and given the levels of
peasant illiteracy at the time, texts such as the "Pauper's Bibles" emphasized illustrations and used words
sparsely. As a new block had to be carved for each page, printing different books was an incredibly time
consuming activity.
Moveable clay and metal type are processes much more efficient than hand copying. The use of movable
type in printing was invented in 1041 A.D. by Bi Sheng in China. Bi used clay type, which broke easily, but
eventually Goryeo (Korea) sponsored the production of metal type (a type foundry was established by the
Korean government in the early 15th century). Since there are thousands of Chinese characters (Koreans
also used Chinese characters in literature), the benefit of the technique is not as apparent as with alphabetic
based languages.
Movable type did spur, however, additional scholarly pursuits in China and facilitated more creative modes
of printing. Nevertheless, movable type was never extensively used in China until the European style
printing press was introduced in relatively recent times (thus bringing the technology full circle).
Although probably unaware of the Chinese/Korean printing methods, Gutenberg refined the technique
with the first widespread use of movable type, where the characters are separate parts that are inserted to
make the text. Gutenberg is also credited with the first use of an oil-based ink, and using "rag" paper
introduced into Europe from China by way of Muslims, who had a paper mill in operation in Baghdad as
early as 794.
Before inventing the printing press in 1440, Gutenberg had worked as a goldsmith. Without a doubt, the
skills and knowledge of metals that he learned as a craftsman were crucial to the later invention of the press.
The claim that Gutenberg introduced or invented the printing press in Europe is not accepted by all. The
other candidate advanced is the Dutchman Laurens Janszoon Coster.
Impact of printing
Previously, books were copied mainly in monasteries, or (from the 13th century) in commercial
scriptoria, where scribes wrote them out by hand. Books were therefore a scarce resource. While it might
take someone a year to hand copy a Bible, with the Gutenberg press it was possible to create several
hundred copies a year, with two or three people that could read, and a few people to support the effort.
Each sheet still had to be fed manually, which limited the reproduction speed, and the type had to be set
manually for each page, which limited the number of different pages created per day. Books produced in
this period, between the first work of Johann Gutenberg and the year 1500, are collectively referred to as
incunabula.
The replacement of hand copied manuscripts with printed works was not received with much joy. Not only
did the authorities contemplate making printing presses an industry requiring a license from the Catholic
Church (an idea rejected in the end), but as early as in the 15th century some nobles refused to have printed
books in their libraries to sully their valuable hand copied manuscripts. Similar resistance was later
encountered in much of the Islamic world, where calligraphic traditions were extremely important, and also
in the Far East.
Despite some resistance, Gutenberg's printing press spread rapidly across Europe. Within thirty years of its
invention in 1453, towns from Hungary to Spain and from Italy to Britain had functional printing presses. It
has been theorized that this incredibly rapid expansion shows not only a higher level of industry (fueled by
the high-quality European paper mills that had been opening over the past century) than expected, but also
a significantly higher level of literacy than has often been estimated.
The first printing press in a Muslim territory opened in Andalusia (Muslim Spain) in the 1480s. This printing
press was run by a family of Jewish merchants who printed texts with the Hebrew script. After 1490s, the
press was moved from Granada to Istanbul (a popular destination for thousands of Andalusia Jews).
Art of book printing and typeface
For years, book printing was considered a true art-form. Typesetting, or the placement of the
characters on the page, including the use of ligatures, was passed down from master to apprentice. In
Germany, the art of typesetting was termed the "black art", and it has largely been lost, due to advances in
computer typesetting programs, which make it possible to get similar results with less human involvement.
Some few practitioners continue to print books the way Gutenberg did. There is a yearly convention of
traditional book printers in Mainz, Germany.
Printing in the industrial age
While the Gutenberg press was much more efficient than manual copying, the Industrial
Revolution and the invention of the steam powered press by Friedrich Gottlob Koenig and Andreas
Friedrich Bauer in 1812 made it possible to print tens of thousands of copies of a page in a day. Koenig and
Bauer sold one of their first models to The Times in 1814 and went on to perfect the early model so that it
could print on both sides of a sheet at once. This made newspapers available to a mass audience, and from
the 1820s changed the nature of book production, forcing a greater standardization in titles and other
metadata (computing). Later on in the middle of the 19th century the rotary press (invented in the United
States by Richard M. Hoe) allowed millions of copies of a page in a single day. Mass production of printed
works flourished after the transition to rolled paper, as continuous feed allowed the presses to run at a
much faster pace. It is interesting to note that the Gutenberg press was essentially unchanged from the time
of its invention until the industrial revolution--a testament to its effectiveness. Movable type has been
credited as the single most important invention of the millennium.
Lithography
A printing technology that dates back to 1798 when Alois Senenfelder developed a method of
imaging limestone from which a print was produced. Based on the principle that oil and water do not mix,
an aluminum or plastic plate is coated with a photopolymer film that is exposed to light through a
photographic mask. The exposed areas are chemically "hardened," and the unexposed areas are dissolved
when the plate is put through a chemical process, which is the next stage. When printing a page, the plate is
dampened, and the water adheres only to the unexposed, non-image areas, which repel the greasy ink that is
applied to the plate immediately thereafter.
Lithography ("writing on stone") is accomplished according to the same principle today, but the stone has
been replaced by a metal plate and the technology of preparing the plate has become more sophisticated.
Lithography is less expensive than either letterpress or gravure printing and is a reasonable alternative,
particularly when an order calls for a short run.
Offset printing
Offset printing is a widely used technique where the inked image is transferred (or "offset") from a
plate first to a rubber blanket, then to the printing surface. When used in combination with the lithographic
process, which is based on the repulsion of oil and water, the offset technique employs a flat image carrier
on which the image to be printed obtains ink from ink rollers, while the non-printing area attracts a film of
water, keeping the nonprinting areas ink-free.
The advantages of offset printing include:
• Consistent high image quality — sharper and cleaner than letterpress printing because the rubber
blanket conforms to the texture of the printing surface
• Usability on a wide range of printing surfaces in addition to smooth paper (e.g., wood, cloth, metal,
leather, rough paper)
• Quick and easy production of printing plates
• Longer plate life than on direct litho presses — because there is no direct contact between the plate
and the printing surface.
The first lithographic offset printing press was created in England around 1875 and was designed for
printing on metal. The offset cylinder was covered with specially treated cardboard that transferred the
printed image from the litho stone to the surface of the metal. About five years later, the cardboard
covering of the offset cylinder was changed to rubber, which is still the most commonly used material.
The first person to use an offset press to print on paper was most likely American Ira Washington Rubel in
1903. Roughly at the same time, a German engineer by the name of Christopher Hermann invented a
similar machine. He got the idea accidentally by noticing that whenever a sheet of paper was not fed into his
lithographic press during operation, the stone printed its image to the rubber-covered impression cylinder,
and the next impression had an image on both sides: direct litho on the front and an image from the rubber
blanket on the back. Rubel then noticed that the image on the back of the sheet was much sharper and
clearer than the direct litho image because the soft rubber was able to press the image onto the paper better
than the hard stone. He soon decided to build a press which printed every image from the plate to the
blanket and then to the paper. Brothers Charles and Albert Harris independently observed this process at
about the same time and developed an offset press for the Harris Automatic Press Company soon after.
Harris designed his offset press around a rotary letterpress machine. It used a metal plate bent around a
cylinder at the top of the machine that pressed against ink and water rollers. A blanket cylinder was
positioned directly below, and in contact with, the plate cylinder. The impression cylinder below pressed the
paper to the blanket in order to transfer the image to the sheet (see diagram). While this basic process is still
used today, refinements include two-sided printing and web feeding (using rolls of paper rather than sheets).
During the 1950s, offset printing became the most popular form of commercial printing as improvements
were made in plates, inks and paper, maximizing the technique's superior production speed and plate
durability. Today, the majority of printing, including newspapers, is done by the offset process.
Photo offset
The most common kind of offset printing is derived from photo offset process. In such cases, the
documents to be printed are first recorded on film negatives. Images from such negatives are then
transferred to photomechanical printing plates much the same way as photographs are developed. A
measured amount of light is allowed to pass through the negatives and exposed the printing plate. A
chemical reaction then occurs that allows an ink-receptive coating to be activated, thus transferring of the
image from the negative to the plate.
Present day
Offset printing is the most common form of high volume commercial printing, due to advantages
in quality and efficiency in high volume jobs. However, modern digital "presses" (inkjet based) are getting
closer to the cost/benefit of offset for high quality work. However, they have not yet been able to compete
with the sheer volume of product that an offset press can produce
Desktop publishing
It requires a desktop publishing program, such as PageMaker or Quark Express, a large monitor
and laser printer. The term "desktop publishing" was very popular when personal computers began to
proliferate in the 1980s.
A desktop publishing program (DTP), also called a "page layout program," provides complete page design
capabilities, including magazine style columns, rules and borders, page, chapter and caption numbering as
well as precise typographic alignment. A key feature is its ability to flow text around graphic objects in a
variety of ways. Although many word processing programs offer most of these features, a desktop
publishing program provides ultimate flexibility.
Original text and graphics may be created in a desktop publishing program, but graphics tools especially are
often elementary. Typically, text is created in a word processing program, and illustrations are created in a
CAD, drawing or paint program. Then, the text and images are imported into the publishing program.
A laser printer may be used for final output, but shaded drawings and photographs print better on
commercial high-resolution image setters. For transfer to a commercial printer, documents are generally
saved in their native page layout format such as PageMaker and Quark Express or as PDF files. For
publishing on the Web, PDF files have become the de facto standard for documents that are downloaded
and read independently of the HTML pages on the site.
LESSON 20
ADVERTISING – HAND IN HAND WITH MEDIA
The area which benefited the most from the extraordinary growth of mass media from the
seventeenth century is advertising. Advertising generally means announcing new products and services with
commercial interest and which people can use as part of their daily life.
Always present before the mass media, advertisements were, however, few and far between. People would
know little about the products and services available to them within a society. Verbal announcements on the
beat of drums or distribution of hand-written bills were common mode of telling the people around about
something pertaining to them. It was never an industry.
At the time printing process introduced in the middle of the fifteenth century no one would have thought
that the new invention would lead to entirely a new industry which would create jobs for millions of people
around the world and generate enormous business.
Not only the mass media helped the advertising industry grow, the later reciprocated in equal terms and at
present stage has come when outlets of mass media are opened only after ensuring that ample support from
the advertising business is available. Fact is that the two areas – mass communication and advertising – are
essential for each other‘s survival.
Here we will examine the rise of advertising business as part of mass communication, its impact on society
and the help, it provides to mass media.
Historical background
In the colonial period, advertisements were primarily signboards on inns, coffeehouses, and the
likes. Travelers needed information about inns, but locals did not need advertisements in order to find the
blacksmith for instance.
The first newspaper to appear continuously, the Boston News-Letter, was established in 1704. It contained
sporadic advertisements. Real estate advertisements, rewards for runaway apprentices, and notices of slaves
for sale were all common, as were announcements of sale of articles, wine, and cloth. These advertisements
were limited to text; they contained no photographs or drawings obviously.
Publisher Benjamin Franklin founded the Pennsylvania Gazette in 1728. The Gazette included more
advertisements than did any other colonial newspaper, with up to half the pages devoted to advertising.
Franklin is credited with introducing the use of large-point headings, using white space to separate the
advertisements from the text, and, after 1750, including illustrations, say some sort of cartoons etc.
Over the next century, there was little subsequent change in advertising. Advertisements provided
information about goods for sale, arrivals and departures of ships, and coach-schedules.
Print advertisements were confined primarily within column rules; advertisements spanning more than one
column were yet to come.
In the 1860s, newspaper circulation increased, and magazine and periodical advertising began. Advertising
volume increased markedly. Multicolumn display advertisements were designed; their first use was to call
attention to the transcontinental railroad bonds that were being sold to the public. By the 1870s,
multicolumn advertisements had become common in most European and American newspapers.
Advertising in the backdrop of Industrialization
Since advertisements were assuming a very formal shape along with the newspapers and magazines,
the diffusion of steam power in the 1850s paved the way for a wave of technological change in the 1870s
and 1880s.
The mass production characterized much of the west manufacturing by 1890. Increased mechanization
generated increased fixed costs, creating an economic incentive to build large factories that could enjoy
economies of scale in production but which were dependent on mass demand.
The transcontinental railroad allowed relatively low-cost shipment of goods, making regional or national
markets economically feasible. Telegraph wires allowed low-cost and fast nationwide transmission of
information. Manufacturers created brand names and sought to familiarize buyers nationally with their
product. Where a housewife had once ordered a pound of generic baking powder, now she was encouraged
to insist on known quality by requesting only Royal Baking Powder.
Interestingly, manufacturers believed that buyers were primarily interested in the quality of the product;
competition by price was uncommon. National firms included drawings of sprawling factories and factory
owners in their advertisements; the larger the factory and thus the more successful the firm, the higher
quality the merchandise could be presumed to be. Singer Sewing Machines, Steinway Pianos, and
McCormick Harvesters and Reapers all produced advertisements of this sort.
The need to maintain demand became especially apparent during the 1893–1897 economic depression.
Many businesses failed; many more came close. Businesses needed methods to insulate themselves from
cyclical downturns in sales and production. Advertising was one tactic they employed.
Urbanization and commercials
In the U.S. only 20 percent of the population lived in urban areas in 1860, increasing to nearly 40
percent by 1900. The need for easy provision of consumer goods increased as more people therefore lived
divorced from the land. It is observed that in most cases it is the population in big cities and towns which is
targeted by the advertisers. The trend was stemmed in the beginning.
By 1900, advertising in newspapers was supplemented by advertising on streetcars, on billboards, and in
magazines. Full-page advertisements, especially in women's magazines, sought to influence women's
choices.
Ladies' Home Journal, established in 1883 by Cyrus H. K. Curtis, led the way. The Crowell Publishing
Company founded Women's Home Companion. William Randolph Hearst began Cosmopolitan, Good
Housekeeping, and Harper's BAZAAR. Between 1890 and 1905 the monthly circulation of periodicals
increased from 18 million to 64 million.
Advertising Agencies
Advertising agents were middlemen in 1850. They bought advertising space from newspapers and
resold it at a profit to a company seeking to place an advertisement.
Beginning in about 1880, N. W. Ayer and Son of Philadelphia offered its customers an "open contract"
under which Ayer would be the company's sole advertising agent and, in exchange, would price advertising
space at cost plus a fixed-rate commission. The idea caught on. Manufacturers were soon blocked from
buying advertising space without an agent.
In 1893, the American Newspaper Publishers Association agreed to not allow discounts on space sold to
direct advertisers. Curtis Publishing Company, publishers of Ladies' Home Journal, inaugurated the same
practice in 1901, and other magazine publishers soon followed suit. The cost-plus-commission basis for the
agency was accepted industry wide in 1919, with the commission standardized at 15 percent.
Until the 1890s, conceptualization and preparation of advertising copy were the responsibility of the firm
placing the advertisement. But as companies followed N. W. Ayer & Son's cost-plus-commission pricing
policy, agents could no longer compete with each other on price; they needed some other means of
distinguishing their services from those of competing agents.
Advertising agents—soon to be known as advertising agencies—took on their modern form: writing copy;
creating trademarks, logos, and slogans; and overseeing preparation of artwork. Ayer hired a full-time
copywriter in 1892; Procter and Collier of Cincinnati did so by 1896; Lord Thomas of Chicago did so by
1898. By 1910, advertising agencies were universally characterized by the presence of full-time copywriters
and artists.
One step in convincing others that advertising was a profession to be taken seriously was the 1917
formation of the American Association of Advertising Agencies.
The Association crafted broadly defined industry standards. Thereafter, the industry was quickly afforded
the respect it desired. In 1926, President Calvin Coolidge addressed the Association's annual convention.
For its ability to create mass demand, he credited advertising with the success of the American industrial
system.
Modern Advertising
Modern advertising—advertising with the goal of creating desire for a product where none
previously existed—began in the early twentieth century. With the blessing of leaders in the advertising
industry, academic psychologists had begun applying principles of psychology to advertising content in the
late 1890s.
In 1901, psychologist Walter Dill Scott, speaking on the psychology of advertising, addressed a gathering of
businessmen. His book The Theory of Advertising appeared in 1903. Advertisers were initially skeptical of
Scott's thesis that psychological principles, especially the concept of suggestion, could be effectively applied
to advertising.
Public service advertising
The same advertising techniques used to promote commercial goods and services can be used to
inform, educate and motivate the public about non-commercial issues, such as AIDS, political ideology,
energy conservation, religious recruitment, and deforestation advertising, in its non-commercial guise, is a
powerful educational tool capable of reaching and motivating large audiences.
Public service advertising, non-commercial advertising, public interest advertising, cause marketing, and
social marketing are different terms for (or aspects of) the use of sophisticated advertising and marketing
communications techniques (generally associated with commercial enterprise) on behalf of non-commercial,
public interest issues and initiatives.
In the United States, the granting of television and radio licenses is contingent upon the station
broadcasting a certain amount of public service advertising. To meet these requirements, many broadcast
stations in America air the bulk of their required Public Service Announcements during the late night or
early morning when the smallest percentage of viewers are watching, leaving more day and prime time
commercial slots available for high-paying advertisers.
Public service advertising reached its height during World Wars I and II under the direction of several
governments.
Advertisement impact
An ongoing conflict thus arose in the early twentieth century between two types of advertising:
"reason-why" and "atmosphere" advertising. Dominant in the late nineteenth century, reason-why
advertising consisted of long, detailed discourses on the features of a product. Atmosphere advertising
reflected psychology's influence; it emphasized visual imagery that evoked emotions. The conflict between
the two types of advertising was especially intense in the decade before World War I (1914–1918).
In 1909, the advertisers of Colgate toothpaste took the conflict directly to consumers, giving them the
opportunity to decide "Which Is the Better Ad?"—the one that offered a detailed explanation of the health
advantages of Colgate toothpaste, or the one that used illustrations to associate the use of Colgate with a
happy family life.
Most practitioners and advertisers were won over by about 1910
Psychologists were judged correct; advertising could change needs and desires. After 1910, most
advertising copy emphasized buyers' needs and desires rather than the product's objectively described
characteristics.
WWI
Advertising's success during World War I fully settled the issue. Most advertisements sounded a
patriotic pitch as they sought to sell Liberty and Victory Bonds, raise money for the Red Cross, and more.
Some advertising historians even credited the industry with shortening the war.
Textbooks
A number of advertising textbooks appeared in the 1920s, authored by professors of psychology
whose academic affiliations were often with schools of business. Surveys sought to ascertain the
fundamental wants or desires of human beings. A typical list would include appetite, love, sexual attraction,
vanity, and approval by others. Atmosphere advertisements emphasized how a product could satisfy these
desires.
Advertisers increasingly looked upon themselves as quite set apart from the consumers who saw their ads. Copywriters were
male. Consumers were female. Roland Marchand, author of Advertising the American Dream (1985), found that advertisers
in the 1920s and 1930s were predominantly male, white, Christian, upper-class, well-educated people who frequently employed
servants and even chauffeurs, and whose cultural tastes ran to modern art, opera, and symphonies. They saw their audience as
female, fickle, debased, emotional, possessing a natural inferiority complex, having inarticulate longings, low intelligence, and
bad taste, and being culturally backward. The copy and visual imagery created by these advertising men often emphasized the
woman's desire to be loved or her desire to be a good mother.
Criticism on advertisements
Advertising is often charged with creating a culture of consumerism in which people define
themselves by the goods they buy. Certainly the first big boom in advertising volume and the rise of
consumerism are coincidental: Consumerism first characterized the United States in the early twentieth
century; advertising volume increased at an annual rate of nearly 9 percent between 1900 and 1920.
Moreover, it was in this period that advertising first began emphasizing the ability of goods to meet
emotional needs and, more to the point, first began its efforts to create needs where none had previously
been felt.
Advertising business
U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2001
YEAR AMOUNT-GROWTH
(billions of dollars)
PERCENTAGE
1900 0.5 —
1920 2.9 8.8
1929 3.4 1.7
1946 003.3 0.1
1960 011.9 9.5
1970 019.6 5.1
1990 129.6 9.9
2000 236.3 6.2
NOTE: The most recent media development, the Internet, was advertisement-free until the first banner advertisements were
sold in 1994. Ownership of computers and use of the Internet are both increasing rapidly; by 1999, 34 percent of adults
nationwide claimed access to the Internet or an online service. Internet advertising increases apace.
Legislation on advertisements
Consumer‘s objections to advertising and its tactics have resulted in legislation, lawsuits, and
voluntary restraint. The 1914 Federal Trade Commission Act empowered the Federal Trade Commission
(FTC) with the authority to regulate "unfair methods of competition." The 1938 Wheeler-Lea Amendment
extended the FTC's powers to "unfair or deceptive acts or practices." The detrimental effects of billboards
on the countryside inspired the federal Highway Beautification Act in 1965, which regulated placement of
billboards near interstate highways. The "Joe Camel" campaign for Camel cigarettes introduced by R. J.
Reynolds in the 1970s resulted in a 1990s federal lawsuit because of the campaign's alleged attempt to hook
kids on smoking. A voluntary ban on television advertising by the Distilled Spirits Council of the United
States was just one part of its Code of Good Practice regarding marketing and advertising, first adopted in
1934. Political advertising, with the goal of swaying voters rather than consumers, enjoys First Amendment
protection but does face some constraints under state laws and under the Federal Communications
Commission's Equal Access Law as well as the Federal Election Campaign Act.
Legislation was also done in almost all the European states, in Asia and Australia of similar nature to
regulate the business of advertising.
LESSON 21
RENAISSANCE AND SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION: ROLE OF PRINT MEDIA
In the 13th century a rediscovery of Greek and Roman literature occurred across Europe that
eventually led to the development of the humanist movement in the next century. In addition to
emphasizing Greek and Latin scholarship, humanists believed that each individual had significance within
society. The growth of an interest in humanism led to the changes in the arts and sciences that form
common conceptions of the Renaissance.
Revival of ideas spread through print
The 14th century to the 16th century – during which time printing process was invented and which
led to pace up the print media communication - was a period of economic flux in Europe; the most
extensive changes took place in Italy. After the death of King Frederick II in 1250, emperors lost power in
Italy and throughout Europe; none of Frederick's successors equaled him. Power fell instead into the hands
of various popes.
During the Renaissance small Italian republics developed into dictatorships as the centers of power moved
from the landed estates to the cities. Europe itself slowly developed into groups of self-sufficient
compartments. At the height of the Renaissance there were five major city-states in Italy: the combined
state of Naples and Sicily, the Papal State, Florence, Milan, and Venice.
Science
Beginning in the latter half of the 15th century, a humanist faith in classical scholarship led to the
search for ancient (hand-written) texts that would increase current scientific knowledge.
Among the works rediscovered were Galen's physiological and anatomical studies and Ptolemy's
Geography. Botany, zoology, magic and astrology were developed during the Renaissance as a result of the
study of ancient texts. Since printing techniques were available, it made the task of sending the old research
still safe in hand written texts, to scholars living distant countries. Scientific thinkers such as Leonardo da
Vinci, Nicolaus Copernicus, Galileo and Johannes Kepler attempted to refine earlier thought on astronomy.
Among Leonardo's discoveries were the revelation that thrown or shot projectiles move in one curved
trajectory rather than two; metallurgical techniques that allowed him to make great sculptures; and
anatomical observations that increased the accuracy of his drawings. The work done on old ideas kept
appearing in books printed in different countries.
In 1543 Copernicus wrote De revolutionibus, a work that placed the sun at the center of the universe and
the planets in order around it; his work was an attempt to revise the earlier writings of Ptolemy. Galileo's
most famous invention was an accurate telescope through which he observed the heavens; he recorded his
findings in Siderius nuncius [starry messenger]. Galileo's Dialogo...sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo
[dialogue concerning the two chief world systems] (1632), for which he was denounced by the pope,
resulted in his living under house arrest for the rest of his life.
Tycho Brahe gave an accurate estimate of planetary positions and refuted the Aristotelian theory that placed
the planets within crystal spheres. Kepler was the first astronomer to suggest that planetary orbits were
elliptical.
Literature
Printing technique was now helping the scholars in the west greatly who produced books one after
the other to create a mark on the thinking of people about the physical things and the motion of moons and
stars. These were the initial phase when the world was about to embark on mass communication through
the printed words.
Humanism in Renaissance rhetoric was a reaction to Aristotelian scholasticism, as espoused by Francis
Bacon, Averroës, and Albertus Magnus, among others. While the scholastics claimed a logical connection
between word and thought, the humanists differentiated between physical utterance and intangible
meditation; they gave common usage priority over sets of logical rules.
The humanists also sought to emulate classical values. Joseph Webbe wrote textbooks that taught Latin
through reconstruction of the sentences of classical authors from individual phrases and clauses. Roger
Ascham taught that one could learn to speak effectively by studying the speeches of ancient orators.
Thomas Elyot wrote The Book Named the Governor, which suggested rules for effective statesmanship.
Thomas More's most significant contribution to humanism was Utopia, a design for an ideal society based
primarily on works by classical authors.
The effect of humanism on English literature was wide and far-reaching. It is evidenced, for example, in the
works of Ben Jonson and William Shakespeare. The poems and plays of Jonson often center on the
difference between virtue and vice; Jonson considers sincerity, honesty, self-discipline, and concern to be
chief virtues, while dissimulation, lying, or masking of identity is vicious behavior. His Volpone and The
Alchemist exemplify humanist values. In a play such as Shakespeare's Tempest, a main character (Prospero)
embodies a full range of human abilities: father, creator, ruler, magician, master, and scholar. In addition,
Shakespeare took subject matter for many plays from classical sources (e.g., Coriolanus, Troilus and
Cressida, and Julius Caesar).
In France Michel de Montaigne and François Rabelais were the most important proponents of humanist
thought. Montaigne's essays are memorable for their clear statement of an individual's beliefs and their
careful examination of society. In ―On the Education of Children,‖ he suggests a remaking of secondary
education according to classical models. The Renaissance Italian Leone Battista Alberti is famed for a series
of dialogues in which he teaches classical virtues in a vernacular tongue. Niccolò Machiavelli wrote Principe,
in which he memorably described the various shapes a ruler must assume in order to become an effective
leader, and Discorsi [the discourses], in which he studies Livy in a search for classical values. The Book of
the Courtier by Baldassare Castiglione is essentially about Castiglione himself; in it the author delineates the
characteristics of a perfect gentleman.
All what was done in the literature books was printed and books traveled from one point of the continent
to another and read widely because high number of printed version made it possible for more people to
participate in discussions on new ideas in natural and social sciences.
Scientific changes
The event which most historians of science call the scientific revolution can be dated roughly as
having begun in 1543, the year in which Nicolaus Copernicus published his De revolutionibus orbium
coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) and Andreas Vesalius published his De humani
corporis fabrica (On the Fabric of the Human body). As with many historical demarcations, historians of
science disagree about its boundaries, some seeing elements contributing to the revolution as early as the
14th century and finding its last stages in chemistry and biology in the 18th and 19th centuries. There is
general agreement, however, that the intervening period saw a fundamental transformation in scientific
ideas in physics, astronomy and biology, in institutions supporting scientific investigation, and in the more
widely held picture of the universe.
Emergence of the revolution
Since the time of Voltaire, some observers have considered that a revolutionary change in thought,
called in recent times a scientific revolution, took place around the year 1600; that is, that there were
dramatic and historically rapid changes in the ways in which scholars thought about the physical world and
studied it. Science, as it is treated in this account, is essentially understood and practiced in the modern
world; with various "other narratives" or alternate ways of knowing omitted.
Alexandre Koyré coined the term and definition of 'The Scientific Revolution' in 1939, which later
influenced the work of traditional historians A. Rupert Hall and J.D. Bernal and subsequent historiography
on the subject (Steven Shapin, The Scientific Revolution, 1996). To some extent, this arises from different
conceptions of what the revolution was; some of the rancor and cross-purposes in such debates may arise
from lack of recognition of these fundamental differences. But it also and more crucially arises from
disagreements over the historical facts about different theories and their logical analysis, e.g. Did Aristotle's
dynamics deny the principle of inertia or not? Did science become mechanistic?
New Ideas and People who emerged:
• Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) published Concerning the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres in 1543
argued for the heliocentric theory of the solar system.
• Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) published De Humani Corporis Fabrica (On the Fabric of the Human Body)
(1543), which discredited Galen's views. He found that the circulation of blood resolved from
pumping of the heart. He also assembled the first human skeleton from cutting open cadavers.
• William Gilbert (1544-1603) published On the Magnet and Magnetic Bodies and That Great Magnet the
Earth in 1600.
• Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) made extensive and more accurate naked eye observations of the planets
in the late 1500's which became the basic data for Kepler's studies.
• Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626), whose greatest scientific experiment amounted to stuffing snow
into a dead chicken, nevertheless penned inductive reasoning, proceeding from observation and
experimentation.
• Galileo (1564-1642) improved the telescope and made several astonishing (for the time)
astronomical observations such as the phases of Venus and the moons of Jupiter, which he
published in 1610. He developed the laws for falling bodies based on pioneering quantitative
experiments which he analyzed mathematically.
• Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) published the first two of his three laws of planetary motion in 1609.
• William Harvey (1578-1657) demonstrated that blood circulates via dissections and various other
experimental techniques.
• René Descartes (1596-1650) pioneered deductive reasoning, publishing in 1637 Discourse on Method.
• Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) constructed powerful single lens microscopes and made
extensive observations that he published in about 1660 began to open up the micro-world of
biology.
• Isaac Newton (1642-1727) built upon the work of Kepler and Galileo. His development of the
calculus opened up new applications of the methods of mathematics to science. He showed that an
inverse square law for gravity explained the elliptical orbits of the planets, and advanced the theory
of Universal Gravitation. Newton believed that scientific theory should be coupled with rigid
experimentation.
Theoretical developments
In 1543 Copernicus' work on the heliocentric model of the solar system was published, in which he
tried to prove that the sun was the center of the universe. Ironically, this was at the behest of the Catholic
Church as part of the Catholic Reformation efforts for a means of creating a more accurate calendar for its
activities. For almost two millennia, the geocentric model had been accepted by all but a few astronomers.
The idea that the earth moved around the sun, as advocated by Copernicus, was to most of his
contemporaries preposterous. It contradicted not only the virtually unquestioned Aristotelian philosophy,
but also common sense. For suppose the earth turns about its own axis. Then, surely, if we were to drop a
stone from a high tower, the earth would rotate beneath it while it fell, thus causing the stone to land some
space away from the tower's bottom. This effect is not observed.
It is no wonder, then, that although some astronomers used the Copernican system to calculate the
movement of the planets, only a handful actually accepted it as true theory. It took the efforts of two men,
Johannes Kepler and Galileo, to give it credibility. Kepler was a brilliant astronomer who, using the very
accurate observations of Tycho Brahe, realized that the planets move around the sun not in circular orbits,
but in elliptical ones. Together with his other laws of planetary motion, this allowed him to create a model
of the solar system that was a huge improvement over Copernicus' original system. Galileo's main
contributions to the acceptance of the heliocentric system were his mechanics and the observations he
made with his telescope, as well as his detailed presentation of the case for the system (which led to his
condemnation by the Inquisition). Using an early theory of inertia, Galileo could explain why rocks dropped
from a tower fall straight down even if the earth rotates. His observations of the moons of Jupiter, the
phases of Venus, the spots on the sun, and mountains on the moon all helped to discredit the Aristotelian
philosophy and the Ptolemaic theory of the solar system. Through their combined discoveries, the
heliocentric system gained more and more support, and at the end of the 17th century it was generally
accepted by astronomers.
Both Kepler's laws of planetary motion and Galileo's mechanics culminated in the work of Isaac Newton.
His laws of motion were to be the solid foundation of mechanics; his law of universal gravitation combined
terrestrial and celestial mechanics into one great system that seemed to be able to describe the whole world
in mathematical formulae.
Not only astronomy and mechanics were greatly changed. Optics, for instance, was revolutionized by
people like Robert Hooke, Christiaan Huygens, René Descartes and, once again, Isaac Newton, who
developed mathematical theories of light as either waves (Huygens) or particles (Newton). Similar
developments could be seen in chemistry, biology and other sciences, although their full development into
modern science was delayed for a century or more.
LESSON 24
IMAGES IN MASS COMMUNICATION – INVENTION OF PHOTOGRAPHY
For almost four hundred years since the invention of printing press in 1443, the print media was
relying on words for the purpose of mass communication. There had been also the use of sketches like
cartoons and illustrations but the media was totally devoid of photographs, something we can‘t perhaps
think of in today‘s world of print communication.
Since the print media was divided into a number of languages even within the European continent, the
written communication was not fully serving the purpose of news media and the analysis on events of
significance reported in newspapers, magazines or even books produced in one language. The handicaps of
verbal communication were strongly felt.
Though the desire was strong to communicate more effectively through the print media, there were no
photographs as the world did not know about photography till the middle of 19th century. Since still
photograph in the earlier part of mass communication through print and later motion pictures in other
modes of mass communication became an integral part of the process of communication, we will see in the
following lines how this technique was invented and exploited by the media so vastly.
What is photography?
Method of recording permanent images by light on to a chemically sensitive material is called
photography. It was developed in the 19th century through the artistic aspirations of two Frenchmen,
Nicéphore Niepce and Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre, whose combined discoveries led to the invention of
the first commercially successful process, the daguerreotype in 1837.
In 1826 or 1827, a Frenchman, Joseph Niepce, had secured the world's earliest surviving photograph (now
lying at the University of Texas at Austin) on a plate sensitized with bitumen and exposed for eight hours in
a camera. From 1829 until his death in 1833, Niepce worked in partnership with another Frenchman, Louis
J. M. Daguerre, who in 1839 invented a means of taking photographs on copper plates lightly coated with
sensitized silver and "developed" over mercury fumes.
Portrait photography
The introduction in 1860 of portrait photographs mounted on cards--, or visiting-card style upped
to a larger cabinet size in 1866--ended the reign of daguerreotype photography.
It also led to the creation of the family photo album and to a new public taste for flamboyantly posed portraits of celebrities,
using dramatic lights and props. As the name Brady dominated the daguerreotype era, it was Brady carte de visite of president
Abraham Lincoln, widely reproduced and distributed in the 1860 presidential campaign, that Lincoln later said helped elect
him president.
Impact of Early Photography
With the advent of the new process, came mass production and dissemination of photographic
prints. The inception of these visual documents of personal and public history engendered vast changes in
people's perception of history, of time, and of themselves. The concept of privacy was greatly altered as
cameras were used to record most areas of human life. The everywhere presence of photographic
machinery eventually changed humankind's sense of what was suitable for observation. The photograph
was considered incontestable proof of an event, experience, or state of being.
To fulfill the mounting and incessant demand for more images, photographers spread out to every corner
of the world, recording all the natural and manufactured phenomena they could find. By the last quarter of
the 19th century, most households could boast respectable photographic collections. These were in three
main forms: the family album, which contained cabinet portraits and; scrapbooks containing large prints
of views from various parts of the world; and boxes of stereoscope cards, which in combination with the
popular stereo viewer created an effective illusion of three-dimensionality.
Further Developments and scientific usages
E. J. Marey, the painter Thomas Eakins, and Eadweard Muybridge all devised means for making
stop-action photographs that demonstrated the gap between what the mind thinks it sees and what the eye
actually perceives. Muybridge's major work, Animal Locomotion (1887), remains a basic source for artists
and scientists alike. As accessory lenses were perfected, the camera's vision extended both telescopically and
microscopically; the moon and the microorganism became accessible as photographic images.
Photographs come to news media
The introduction of the halftone process in 1881 made possible the accurate reproduction of
photographs in books and newspapers. In combination with new improvements in photographic
technology, including dry plates and smaller cameras, which made photographing faster and less
cumbersome, the halftone made immediate reportage feasible and paved the way for news photography.
George Eastman's introduction in 1888 of roll film and the simple Kodak box camera provided everyone
with the means of making photographs for themselves. Meanwhile, studies in sensitometers, the new
science of light-sensitive materials, made exposure and processing more practicable.
The power of the photograph as record was demonstrated in the 19th century when William H. Jackson's
photographs of the Yellowstone area persuaded the U.S. Congress to set that territory aside as a national
park.
In the early 20th century photographers and journalists were beginning to use the medium to inform the
public on crucial issues in order to generate social change. Taking as their precedents the work of such men
as Jackson and reporter Jacob Riis (whose photographs of New York City slums resulted in much-needed
legislation), documentarians like Lewis Hine and James Van Der Zee began to build a photographic
tradition whose central concerns had little to do with the concept of art. The photojournalist sought to
build, strengthen, or change public opinion by means of novel, often shocking images.
Impact of New Technology
The development of the 35-mm or ―candid‖ camera by Oskar Barnack of the Ernst Leitz company,
first marketed in 1925, made documentarians infinitely more mobile and less conspicuous, while the
manufacture of faster black-and-white film enabled them to work without a flash in situations with a
minimum of light. Color film for transparencies (slides) was introduced in 1935 and color negative
film in 1942. Portable lighting equipment was perfected, and in 1947 the Polaroid Land camera, which
could produce a positive print in seconds, was placed on the market. All of these technological advances
granted the photojournalist enormous and unprecedented versatility.
The advent of large-circulation picture magazines, such as Life (begun 1936) and Look (begun 1937),
provided an outlet and a vast audience for documentary work. At the same time a steady stream of
convulsive national and international events provided a wealth of material for the extended photo-essay, the
documentarian's natural mode. One of these was the Great Depression of the 1930s, which proved to be
the source of an important body of documentary work. Under the leadership of Roy Stryker, the
photographic division of the Farm Security Administration (FSA) began to make an archive of images of
America during this epoch of crisis. Walker Evans, Arthur Rothstein, Russell Lee, and Dorothea Lange of
the FSA group photographed the cultural disintegration generated by the Depression and the associated
disappearance of rural lifestyles.
With the coming of World War II photographers, including Margaret Bourke-White, Edward Steichen, W.
Eugene Smith, Lee Miller, and Robert Capa, documented the global conflict. The war was a stimulus to
photography in other ways as well. From the stress analysis of metals to aerial surveillance, the medium was
a crucial tool in many areas of the war effort, and, in the urgency of war, numerous technological
discoveries and advances were made that ultimately benefited all photographers.
Modern Photography
After the war museums and art schools opened their doors to photography, a trend that has
continued to the present. Photographers began to break free of the oppressive structures of the straight
aesthetic and documentary modes of expression. As exemplified by Robert Frank in his highly influential
book-length photo-essay, The Americans (1959), the new documentarians commenced probing what has
been called the ―social landscape,‖ often mirroring in their images the anxiety and alienation of urban life.
Such introspection naturally led to an increasingly personal form of documentary photography, as in the
works of J. H. Lartigue and Diane Arbus.
Many young photographers felt little inhibition against handwork, collage, multiple images, and other forms
that were anathema to practitioners of the straight aesthetic. Since the 1960s photography has become an
increasingly dominant medium within the visual arts. Many painters and printmakers, including Andy
Warhol, Robert Rauschenberg, and David Hockney have blended photography with other modes of
expression, including computer imaging in mixed media compositions at both large and small scale.
Contemporary photographers who use more traditional methods to explore non-traditional subjects include
Cindy Sherman and Richard Prince.
Other Aspects of Photography
In the contemporary world the practical applications of the photographic medium are numerous: it
is an important tool in education, medicine, commerce, criminology, and the military. Its scientific
applications include aerial mapping and surveying, geology, reconnaissance, meteorology, archaeology, and
anthropology. New techniques such as holography, a means of creating a three-dimensional image in space,
continue to expand the medium's technological and creative horizons. In astronomy the charge coupled
device (CCD) can detect and register even a single photon of light.
Digital Technology
By the end of the 20th century digital imaging and processing and computer-based techniques had
made it possible to manipulate images in many ways, creating revolutionary changes in photography. Digital
technology allowed for a fundamental change in the nature of photographic technique. Instead of light
passing through a lens and striking emulsion on film, digital photography uses sensors and color filters. In
one technique three filters are arranged in a mosaic pattern on top of the photosensitive layer. Each filter
allows only one color (red, green, or blue) to pass through to the pixel beneath it. In the other technique,
three separate photosensitive layers are embedded in silicon. Since silicon absorbs different colors at
different depths, each layer allows a different color to pass through. When stacked together, a full color
pixel results. In both techniques the photosensitive material converts images into a series of numbers that
are then translated back into tonal values and printed. Using computers, various numbers can easily be
changed, thus altering colors, rearranging pictorial elements, or combining photographs with other kinds of
images. Some digital cameras record directly onto computer disks or into a computer, where the images can
be manipulated at will.
LESSON 25
MOTION PICTURES – A NEW WAY IN MASS COMMUNICATION-I
The still photographs appeared frequently in the print media by the third quarter of the 19th century
and the newspersons showed extra-ordinary enthusiasm in exploiting the visual strength of images taken
through camera. The quality of images improved in the last quarter when halftone technique was
discovered.
There was hardly a world class newspaper or magazine in the last decade of the century which was not
including camera pictures to convey one truth or the other to the readers. Some of the camera work, as
discussed in the last lecture, was so strong that it had forced the American government to undertake
legislation to help people living in slums.
Not only the darker side of the life was in view of the print media, the newspapers and magazines were fully
exploiting the pictorial edge in the aesthetic sense, especially playing up female models. The trend continues
to-date and special fashion magazines are a common sight at most bookstalls. But scientists, inspired by the
still camera images, had some other ideas as well. Why not to create a sense of motion by using a series of
images. But how, was the question making them to scratch their heads. At this stage of history no one knew
what miracle in mass communication was in waiting.
Definition
Motion picture means movie-making as an art and an industry, including its production techniques,
its creative artists and the distribution and exhibition of its products.
Start in unbelievable fashion
It started with a $25,000 bet, in 1877 that was a lot of money. Edward
Muybridge, an Englishman tuned American, needed to settle a bet. Some people argued
that a galloping horse had all four feet off of the ground at the same time at some point;
others said this would be impossible. No feet touching the ground; how could that be?
The problem was that galloping hooves move too fast for the eye to see. Or, maybe,
depending on your belief, just fast enough that you could see what you wanted to. To settle the bet
definitive proof was needed.
In an effort to settle the issue once and for all an experiment was set up in which a rapid sequence of
photos was taken of a running horse. When the pictures were developed it was found that the horse did
indeed have all four feet off the ground during brief moments, thus, settling the bet. But, in doing this
experiment they found out something else — something that becomes obvious from the illustrations below.
When a series of still photos are presented sequentially, an illusion of motion is created. That discovery
would soon make that $25,000 look like pocket change.
The series of eleven still photos shown below are presented sequentially at 0.1 second intervals to create the
appearance of continuous motion.
Later, we would give impressive names to the two factors that created this illusion of motion — the illusion
that lies at the base of both motion pictures and television.
• The phi phenomenon that explains why, when you view a series of slightly different still photos or
images in rapid succession, an illusion of movement is created in the transition between the images.
• Persistence of vision, which explains why the intervals between the successive images merge into a single image
as our eyes hold one image long enough for the next one to take its place.
In actual fact, there is nothing moving in motion pictures. It's all an illusion based on these two phenomena.
Note in the illustration on the left that an illusion of motion is created, even when successive pictures are
presented at a relatively slow rate.
Motion picture projectors present images much faster, at 24-frames per-second, with each of those frames
flashed on the screen twice. This high speed makes the transition between images virtually invisible. So, as a
result of a $25,000 bet, the foundation for motion pictures and television was inadvertently established.
Early days
Experiments in photographing movement had been made in both the United States and Europe
during the latter half of the 19th century with, at first, no exploitation of its technical and commercial
possibilities. Serial photographs of racehorses, intended to prove that all four hooves do leave the ground
simultaneously, were obtained (1867) in California by Eadweard Muybridge and J. D. Isaacs by setting up a
row of cameras with shutters tripped by wires. The first motion pictures made with a single camera were by
E. J. Marey, a French physician, in the 1880s, in the course of his study of motion.
In 1889 Thomas Edison and his staff developed the kinetograph, a camera using rolls of coated celluloid
film, and the Kinetoscope, a device for peep-show viewing using photographs that flipped in sequence.
Marketed in 1893, the Kinetoscope gained popularity in penny arcades, and experimentation turned to ways
in which moving images might be shown to more than one person at a time. In France the Lumière
brothers created the first projection device, the Cinématographe (1895). In the United States, similar
machines, notably the Pantopticon and the Vitascope, were developed and first used in New York City in
1896.
At first the screenings formed part of variety shows and arcades, but in 1902 a Los Angeles shop that
showed only moving pictures had great success; soon ―movie houses‖ (converted shop-rooms) sprang up
all over the country. The first movie theater, complete with luxurious accessories and a piano, was built in
Pittsburgh in 1905. A nickel was charged for admission, and the theater was called the nickelodeon. An
industry developed to produce new material and the medium's potential for expressive ends began to assert
itself.
The first American studios were centered in the New York City area. Edison had claimed the patents for
many of the technical elements involved in filmmaking and, in 1909, formed the Motion Picture Patents
Company, an attempt at monopoly that worked to keep unlicensed companies out of production and
distribution. To put distance between themselves and the Patents Company's sometimes violent tactics,
many independents moved their operations to a suburb of Los Angeles; the location's proximity to Mexico
allowed these producers to flee possible legal injunctions. After 1913 Hollywood, Calif., became the
American movie capital. At first, films were sold outright to exhibitors; later they were distributed on a
rental basis through film exchanges.
Early on, actors were not known by name, but in 1910, the ―star system‖ came into being via promotion of
Vitagraph Co. actress Florence Lawrence, first known as The Vitagraph Girl. Other companies, noting that
this approach improved business, responded by attaching names to popular faces and ―fan magazines‖
quickly followed, providing plentiful, and free, publicity. Films had slowly been edging past the 20 minute
mark, but the drive to feature-length works began with the Italian ―spectacle‖ film, of which Quo Vadis
(1913), running nine reels or about two hours, was the most influential.
Directors, including D. W. Griffith, Thomas Ince, Maurice Tourneur, J. Stuart Blackton, and Mack Sennett,
became known to audiences as purveyors of certain kinds, or ―genres,‖ of subject matter. The first
generation of star actors included Charlie Chaplin, Buster Keaton, Mary Pickford, Douglas Fairbanks, Marie
Dressler, Lillian Gish, William S. Hart, Greta Garbo, John Gilbert, Claudette Colbert, Rudolph Valentino,
Janet Gaynor, Ronald Colman, Clara Bow, Gloria Swanson, Lon Chaney, and Will Rogers. During World
War I the United States became dominant in the industry and the moving picture expanded into the realm
of education and propaganda
Subjects in the beginning
The earliest films were used primarily to chronicle contemporary attitudes, fashions, and events,
and ran no longer than 10 minutes. At first, simple actions were filmed, then everyday scenes and, pivotally,
gag films, in which a practical joke is staged as a simple tableau. The camera was first used in a fixed
position, though soon it was pivoted, or panned, on its tripod or moved toward or away from a subject.
The medium's potential as a storytelling mechanism was realized very early in its history. The Frenchman
George Méliès created the earliest special effects and built elaborate sets specifically to tell stories of a
fantastic nature, usually as a series of tableaux. His Cinderella (1900) and A Trip to the Moon (1902) were major
innovative accomplishments. The American Edwin S. Porter demonstrated that action need not be staged
for cinema screen as for theater and early realized that scenes photographed in widely separate locales could
be cut, or edited, together yet still not be confusing to the audience. His subject matter tended toward
depictions of modern life; his Life of an American Fireman (1902) and The Great Train Robbery (1903) are among
the first works to use editing as well as acting and stagecraft to tell their stories.
Business aspect
As business increased, the demand for product was met by many new companies incorporated to
create the supply. Cooperation among the early filmmakers yielded to the demands of the marketplace, and
each company tried to secure continued success through innovations meant to distinguish its product. Out
of these efforts developed the star system, the establishment of physical plants (studios) where the films
would be made, and the organization of the filmmaking process into interlocking crafts. The crafts people
include actors, producers, cinematographers, writers, editors, and film laboratory technicians who work
interdependently in a production effort overseen and coordinated by the director.
The year 1926 brought experiments in sound effects and music, and in 1927 spoken dialogue was
successfully introduced in The Jazz Singer with Al Jolson. A year later the first all-talking picture, Lights of New
York, was shown. With the talkies new directors achieved prominence—King Vidor, Joseph Von Sternberg,
Rouben Mamoulian, Frank Capra, and John Ford.
Sound films gave a tremendous boost to the careers of some silent actors but destroyed many whose voices
were not suited to recording. Among the most celebrated stars of the new era were Clark Gable, Jean
Harlow, Marlene Dietrich, Mae West, W. C. Fields, and the Marx Brothers. Also in 1927 The Motion
Picture Academy of Arts and Sciences was formed and began an annual awards ceremony. The prize, a
figurine of a man grasping a star, was later dubbed Oscar. These awards did much to confer status upon the
medium in that they asserted a definable quality of excellence analogous to literature and theater, other
media in which awards are given for excellence. The Academy Awards also offered the bonus of gathering
many stars in one place and thus attracted immediate and widespread attention. The star system blossomed:
actors were recruited from the stage as well as trained in the Hollywood studios.
From the 1930s until the early 1950s, the studios sponsored a host of talented actors, foremost among
whom were Ingrid Bergman, Joan Crawford, Bette Davis, Katharine Hepburn, Charles Laughton, Barbara
Stanwyck, William Powell, Spencer Tracy, Humphrey Bogart, Leslie Howard, Gary Cooper, James Stewart,
Cary Grant, Irene Dunne, Edward G. Robinson, Henry Fonda, Gregory Peck, James Cagney, Judy Garland,
Bob Hope, James Mason, Fred Astaire, and Gene Kelly. Producers and directors such as David O. Selznick,
Darryl F. Zanuck, Mervyn LeRoy, William Wyler, George Stevens, and Billy Wilder made significant
contributions to cinematic art.
To be continued.......
LESSON 26
MOTION PICTURES – A NEW WAY IN MASS COMMUNICATION (Cont...)
The medium had, after nickelodeon days, converted many legitimate theaters into movie houses.
Later, during Hollywood's ―golden age,‖ thousands of sumptuous movie palaces were erected all over the
United States, and drive-in movie theaters became popular outside urban centers. Since their inception the
movies have always been termed an industry, with good reason. In 1938 there were more than 80 million
single admissions per week (65% of the population). To meet the huge box-office demand, more than 500
films were produced that year.
From studios to film series
The industry in its heyday (1930–49) was managed by a number of omnipotent studios, including
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Warner Brothers, RKO, Paramount, Twentieth Century-Fox, and Universal. They
produced endless cycles of films in imitation of a few successful original types. The range of themes
included the criminal underworld, behind-the-scenes newspaper dramas, westerns, musicals, and costume
romances, character series such as the Charlie Chaplin films, prison stories, mysteries, comedies, and
Broadway shows. Because of their enormous investments and gargantuan rewards (the film industry's gross
income for 1946, its best year, was nearly $2 billion), the studios were encouraged to repeat
conventionalized formula pictures.
Post-Studio Era
In the 1950s, two developments ended the studios' grip on the entertainment business: the
overwhelming popularity of television began to eat into studio profits and the studios were forced by the
federal courts to yield the control of distribution and exhibition that they had maintained by means of
massive conglomerate corporations. In 1962 box-office receipts were only $900 million; by 1968 only 20
million people per week were going to a movie (10% of the population). Independent distributors and
theaters took a huge cut of the industry's income after World War II, and the studios cut wages and laid off
employees in a struggle to survive.
Challenges from TV
In order to compete with television the studio heads strongly urged technological innovation. In
the 1950s experiments abounded with wide-screen processes, such as Cinema Scope and Cinerama and
stereophonic sound systems. The movies of the 1950s and 60s traded a bit of glamour for an increased
sense of realism, providing vehicles for new directors, including Elia Kazan, John Frankenheimer, Stanley
Kubrick, and Sidney Lumet, and for a great number of popular film stars, including Marlon Brando, Marilyn
Monroe, Burt Lancaster, Montgomery Clift, Judy Holliday, James Dean, Paul Newman, Elizabeth Taylor,
Charlton Heston, Doris Day, George C. Scott, Audrey Hepburn, and Sidney Poitier.
Eventually, 1956 many studios began to produce material especially for television, including commercials,
and to sell their old films for television reruns. Independent production became the norm, with the studios
acting as distributors only, and new kinds of films emerged: horror, science fiction, and rock 'n' roll stories
aimed at teen-agers proliferated. Concurrently, larger studio-backed films eschewed romanticism and
sentimentality, fighting the long-imposed bans on depictions of a harsher reality and a more explicit
sexuality.
The trend away from the glamorous celebrity image that began in the 1960s gained momentum in the 70s.
The principal stars of these years include Jane Fonda, Barbra Streisand, Dustin Hoffman, Steve McQueen,
and Woody Allen. Important American directors of the 1970s, 80s, and 90s include Peter Bogdanovich,
Roman Polanski, Francis Ford Coppola, Robert Altman, and Martin Scorsese.
Jaws marks the change
A change came with the release of Jaws (1975), an unassuming suspense picture that unexpectedly
grossed over $100 million by appealing to all ages and both sexes. Filmmakers were now encouraged to
speak to the widest possible audience. The result was a series of films given over to spectacle. Star Wars
(1977) cracked the $200 million barrier, and E.T. (1982) earned over $300 million. While many of these
films aroused criticism for representing the triumph of special effects over any kind of human values, the
net effect was to draw the audience back into movie theaters, and many movies, including those without
spectacular elements, succeeded during this period. This trend has continued into the 21st cent. The leading
directors are Steven Spielberg and George Lucas, the latter more active as a producer.
VCRs introduction
Two developments that greatly enhanced profitability in the 1980s were the development of lowcost
videocassette recorders (VCRs), which allow films to be shown at home, and the government's
relaxation of the decrees separating production from distribution. The studios first felt that videocassettes
would weaken the theatrical market; the reverse was true, as viewers became more interested in movie
entertainment in general.
Beginning in the 1960s, many of the old movie palaces began to be divided into two or more auditoriums
due to weakening attendance. When audiences returned in the 1980s, multiplexes, or theaters with multiple
auditoriums, became the norm and mushroomed in suburban shopping malls and urban centers. In the
early 1990s, however, the recession was reflected in movie attendance. By the turn of the decade, two major
studios, MGM and Orion, suffered financial difficulties, and two others, Columbia and Universal, were
bought by Japanese electronics companies, although Universal later became part of a French conglomerate.
One of the few positive motion-picture trends during the late 20th and early 21st century was the
development and proliferation of IMAX. The format, which debuted in Japan in 1970, utilizes special film
and projectors, features a gigantic screen and huge sound system, and has been used to take viewers on
ultra-realistic trips to earthly (e.g., Everest, 1998) and outer-space (e.g., Destiny in Space, 1994) destinations.
Censorship and ethics
After several scandals led to the fear that the immorality perceived to be rampant in Hollywood
might appear on screen, the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America, headed by Will H.
Hays, was established in 1922 as a film review board. The Production Code, popularly known as the ―Hays
Code,‖ a highly restrictive set of guidelines for movie content, was promulgated in 1934 and complied with
by virtually every Hollywood producer. In the late 1960s, the determination of what constituted
pornography was turned over to the states for enforcement at the same time that filmmakers were
attempting to break away from the Production Code's bans on sexuality and violence.
In 1966, the Production Code was abandoned completely and succeeded by the Motion Picture Code and Rating Program.
Adopted to avoid a threatened state-controlled system, the program has characterized itself as providing guidance for parents,
not for filmmakers. The program initially assigned each film one of four ratings: G (general audiences, without restrictions), M
(mature audiences, parental guidance advised), R (restricted audiences, no one younger than 18 admitted without a parent or
guardian), and X (no one younger than 18 admitted). The age limit may be adjusted by individual state rulings. M was
eventually supplanted by PG (parental guidance suggested), PG-13, was introduced for films that might contain material
inappropriate for pre-teenagers, and NC-17 replaced X, which had become associated with pornographic films.
LESSON 27
FILM MEDIA IN SUBCONTINENT AND PAKISTAN-I
Film is a term that encompasses motion pictures as individual projects, as well as the field in
general. The origin of the name comes from the fact that photographic film has historically been the
primary medium for recording and displaying motion pictures.
Many other terms exist for an individual motion picture, including picture, picture show, and most
commonly, movie. Additional terms for the field in general include the big screen, the silver screen, the
cinema and the movies.
Films are produced by recording actual people and objects with cameras, or by creating them using
animation techniques and/or special effects. They comprise a series of individual frames, but when these
images are shown rapidly in succession, the illusion of motion is given to the viewer. Flickering between
frames is not seen due to an effect known as persistence of vision — whereby the eye retains a visual
image for a fraction of a second after the source has been removed.
A true art-form
Film is considered by many to be an important art form; films entertain, educate, enlighten and
inspire audiences. The visual elements of cinema need no translation, giving the motion picture a universal
power of communication. Any film can become a worldwide attraction, especially with the addition of
dubbing or subtitles that translate the dialogue. Films are also artifacts created by specific cultures, which
reflect those cultures, and, in turn, affect them.
Films come to subcontinent
The Lumière Brothers of France exhibited their short films in December 1895 at Grande Cafe,
Paris. The following year, they brought the show to India and held its premiere at the Watson Hotel in
Bombay on 7 July 1896. It was a package of 6 films viz, Entry of cinematograph, Arrival of the train, The
sea bath, A demolition, Leaving the factory and Ladies and Soldiers on wheels. From 18 July 1896, films
were released at the Novelty Theatre on a regular basis. Entrance tickets ranged from four anaas to one
rupee.
Raja Harishchandra (1913) was the first silent feature film made in subcontinent. It was made by Dadasaheb
Phalke. By the 1930s, the industry was producing over 200 films per annum. The first Indian sound film,
Ardeshir Irani's Alam Ara (1931), was a super hit. There was clearly a huge market for talkies and musicals;
Bollywood and all the regional film industries quickly switched to sound filming.
The 1930s and 1940s were tumultuous times: like the whole world the subcontinent was rocked by the
Great Depression, World War II, the Indian independence movement, and the violence of the Partition.
There were a number of filmmakers who tackled tough social issues, or used the struggle for independence
as a backdrop for their plots. In late 1950s, Bollywood films moved from black-and-white to colour. Lavish
romantic musicals and melodramas were the staple fare at the cinema. Successful actors included Dev
Anand, Dilip Kumar and Raj Kapoor.
Controversies
Accusations of plagiarism
Constrained by rushed production schedules and small budgets, some writers and musicians have
been known to resort to plagiarism. They copy ideas, plot lines, tunes from sources Hollywood and other
Western movies, Western pop hits).
In past times, this could be done with impunity. Copyright enforcement was lax here. As for the Western
sources, the film industry was largely unknown to Westerners, who would not even be aware that their
material was being copied. Audiences also may not have been aware of the plagiarism, since many in the
Indian audience were unfamiliar with Western films and tunes.
While copyright enforcements are more familiar with foreign movies and music, flagrant plagiarism may
have diminished -- however, there is no general agreement that it has.
Pre-cinema times
Telling stories from the epics using hand-drawn tableau images in scroll paintings, with
accompanying live sounds have been an age old tradition. These tales, mostly the familiar stories of gods
and goddesses, are revealed slowly through choreographic movements of painted glass slides in a lantern,
which create illusions of movements. And so when the Lumière brothers' representatives held the first
public showing at Mumbai's (Bombay) Watson's Hotel on July 7, 1896, the new phenomenon did not create
much of a stir here and no one in the audience ran out at the image of the train speeding towards them, as it
did elsewhere. The viewer took the new experience as something already familiar to them
In Calcutta, Hiralal Sen photographed scenes from some of the plays at the Classic Theatre. Such films were
shown as added attractions after the stage performances or taken to distant venue where the stage
performers could not reach. The possibility of reaching a large audience through recorded images which
could be projected several times through mechanical gadgets caught the fancy of people in the performing
arts and the stage and entertainment business. The first decade of the 20th century saw live and recorded
performances being clubbed together in the same program.
Influence of traditional arts – music, dance on cinema
The strong influence of its traditional arts, music, dance and popular theatre – which was already in
existence for the last about 80 years, on the cinema movement in subcontinent in its early days, is probable
responsible for its characteristic enthusiasm for inserting song and dance sequences in subcontinent cinema,
even till today.
First local film showing
Raja Harish Chandra
Director Dada Saheb Phalke made a studio in Dadar Main Road, wrote the scenario, erected the set
and started shooting for his first venture Raja Harishchandra in 1912. The first full-length story film of
Phalke was completed in 1912 and released at the Coronation cinema on April 21, 1913, for special invitees
and members of the Press. The film was widely acclaimed by one and all and proved to be a great success.
Phalke hailed from an orthodox Hindu household - a family of priests with strong religious roots. So, when
technology made it possible to tell stories through moving images, it was but natural that the film pioneer
turned to his own ancient epics for source material. The phenomenal success of Raja Harishchandra was
kept up by Phalke with a series of mythological films that followed - Mohini Bhasmasur (1914), significant
for introducing the first woman to act before the cameras - Kamalabai Gokhale. The significant titles that
followed include - Satyawan Savitri (1914), Satyavadi Raja Harischandra (1917), Lanka Dahan (1917), Shri
Krishna Janma (1918) and Kalia Mardan (1919).
Regional Cinema
(Here we will discuss different regions in the subcontinent where the film art flourished. The
mention of Lahore as one very strong pocket which nurtured a film industry will be made in the next setting
along with cinema life in Pakistan).
South subcontinent
The first film in Southern India was made in 1916 by R Nataraja Mudaliar- Keechaka Vadham. As
the title indicates the subject is again a mythological from the Mahabharata. Another film made in Madras -
Valli Thiru-Manam (1921) by Whittaker drew critical acclaim and box office success.
In Bengal, a region rich in culture and intellectual activity, the first Bengali feature film in 1917, was remake
of Phalke's Raja Harishchandra. Titled Satyawadi Raja Harishchandra, it was directed by Rustomjee
Dotiwala. Less prolific than Bombay based film industry, around 122 feature films were made in Calcutta in
the Silent Era.
The first feature film in Tamil, also the first in entire South India, Keechakavatham was made during 1916-
17, directed by Nataraja Mudaliar.
Calcutta film Industry
Madan Theatres of Calcutta produced Shirin Farhad and Laila Majnu (1931) well composed and
recorded musicals. Both films replete with songs had a tremendous impact on the audience and can be said
to have established the unshakeable hold of songs on our films. Chandidas (1932, Bengali), the story of a
Vaishnavite poet-priest who falls in love with a low caste washerwoman and defies convention, was a superhit.
P C Barua produced Devdas (1935) based on Saratchandra Chatterjee's famous story about frustrated
love, influenced a generation of viewers and filmmakers.
Cinema Starts Talking
In the early thirties, the silent Indian cinema began to talk, sing and dance. Alam Ara produced by
Ardeshir Irani, released on March 14, 1931 was the first Indian cinema with a sound track.
Mumbai became the hub of the Indian film industry having a number of self-contained production units.
The thirties saw hits like Madhuri (1932), Indira, M A (1934), Anarkali (1935), Miss Frontier Mail (1936),
and Punjab Mail (1939).
Hindu cast system was first to get attention
The hindu culture based strongly on cast-divide and not be changed by long muslim rule, but
strongly felt by hindu scholars, was the first to get attention when a strong mass medium like film was
invented.
Among the leading filmmakers of Mumbai during the forties, V Shantaram was arguably the most
innovative and ambitious. From his first Ayodhya ka Raja (1932) to Admi (1939), it was clear that he was a
filmmaker with a distinct style. He dealt with issues like cast system, religious bigotry and women's rights.
Even when Shantaram took up stories from the past, he used these as parables to highlight contemporary
situations. While Amirt Manthan (1934) opposed the senseless violence of Hindu rituals, Dharmatama
(1935) dealt with Brahmanical orthodoxy and cast system. Duniya Na Mane (1937) was about a young
woman's courageous resistance to a much older husband whom she had been tricked into marrying. Admi
(1939) was one of Shantaram's major works.
Tamil cinema emerged as a veritable entertainment industry in 1929 with the creation of General Picture
Corporation in Madras (Chennai). Most of the Tamil films produced were multilingual productions, with
versions in Telugu, Malayalam and Kannada until film production units were established in Hyderabad,
Trivandrum and Bangalore. The first talkie of South India, Srinivas Kalyanam was made by A Narayanan in
1934.
Mehboob Khan 40s to 50s
Mehboob made his films down to earth, dramatic, even melodramatic. Roti made in the early 1940s
inspired by the German Expressionism, is a real critique of Indian society with prophetic insight. It deals
with two models - one of a millionaire, possessed by money and power in an industrial civilization, the other
of a tribal couple living in a primeval state of nature. The millionaire is saved by the couple after an air
crash, the tribal couple immigrates to the city, do not find happiness and return. The millionaire is ruined in
the city, tries futilely to find salvation among the tribal.
Mehboob remade his film Aurat (1940) in colour and with drastically different imagery as Mother India
(1957), which was a massive success and later even acquired an epic status. The story revolves around
Radha, played by Nargis, one of the strongest woman characters of Indian cinema. Her husband having lost
both arms in an accident leaves her. Alone, she raises her children while fending off the financial as well as
the sexual pressure from a moneylender. One of her sons, Birju becomes a rebel and the other one Ramu
remains a dutiful son. In the end the long suffering mother kills her rebel son, as his blood fertilizes the soil.
Highly successful and critically acclaimed, Mehboob's films often derive from clash between pre-capitalist
ruralism and an increasingly modernized state with its commercial-industrial practices and values.
Bimal Roy
Born in Dhaka, Bangladesh, Bimal Roy entered the field of cinema as a camera assistant. His
directorial debut was with Udayer Pathey (1944). He introduced a new era of post World War romanticrealist
melodramas that was an integration of the Bengal School style with that of De Sica. Do Bigha Zamin
(1953) and Sujata were two of the most notable films of Bimal Roy, who basically was a reformist, a
humanist liberal. Do Bigha Zamin was one of the Indian first films to chart mass migration of rural people
to cities and their degradation in urban slums. Though the situation was tragic, Roy sought to relieve the
starkness by brave and hopeful songs and dances. Sujata dealt with the disturbances created to a lost soul
from the world of untouchable underclass who escaped accidentally to the world of the urban middle class.
Raj Kapoor
Born in Peshawar, now in Pakistan as son of Prithviraj Kapoor, Raj Kapoor acted the role of a
megastar, successful producer and a director. He started as a clapper-boy in the Hindi film industry and
latter became one of the most successful directors of the industry. He set up the R K Films in 1948 and
made his first directorial venture Aag. His earlier films Awara (1951) and Shri 420 (1955) evince a
sentimental approach to social reforms, presenting political independence as a loss of innocence in
exchange of stability.
Pakistan
Pakistan film history from 1896-1947
Pakistan shared its film history with India from 1896 to 1947. Lahore produced many films and a
big number of Pakistani artists debuted in this period.
Pakistani artists before 1947
The first silent film from Lahore was The Daughter of Today released in 1924 and the inaugural
Punjabi or talkie film from Lahore was Heer Ranjha in 1932. (Alam Ara was released in 1931, which
means Lahore was going as fast and one top hum after Bombay for film making in the subcontinent.
To be continued...
LESSON 28
FILM MEDIA IN SUBCONTINENT AND PAKISTAN (II) & ITS EFFECTS
More activities of foreigners made Bombay the centre of film world right in the beginning. But the
part of the subcontinent which spearheaded in film arts was Lahore. It will not be wrong to say that most
talent in direction, acting and singing was generated in the Lahore film studios before partition.
Here we will talk in detail how the film art flourished in Lahore before partition and how this one
distinguished mean of mass communication fared in Pakistan after independence.
Pakistan film history from 1896-1947
Pakistan shared its film history with India (Bharat) from 1896 to 1947. Lahore produced many films
and a big number of Pakistani artists debuted in this period.
Pakistani artists before 1947
The first silent film from Lahore was The Daughter of Today released in 1924 and the inaugural
Punjabi or talkie film from Lahore was Heer Ranjha in 1932. (Alam Ara was released in 1931, which
means Lahore was going as fast and one top film-home after Bombay in the subcontinent.
Some Memorable Movies from 1913-47
Raja Harishchandra
The Daughter of Today
Alam Ara
Heer Ranjha
Khazanci
Anmol Gharri
Jugnu
First film made with cultural taboos- sans women
Raja Harishchandra was released for public viewing in Coronation theatres, Bombay. The first
Indian motion picture, D. G. Phalke‘s mythological boasted of an all-male star-cast. Even the female lead
was played by a man since no woman was willing to be part of the cast.
First ever silent feature film from Lahore
Premier Film Company
The Daughter of Today
Released in: 1924
The first ever silent film from Punjab
Actors: A.K.Kardar, Wilayat Begum, M. Ismaeel, Vijay Kumar, Heera Lal and Master Ghulam Qadir, G.K.
Mehta.
M. Ismaeel started his film career from the first ever Lahore made silent film and he was an automatic
choice in the first talkie film from Lahore too.
Assistant Director: Mian Abdur Rasheed Kardar, was the man who started film making in Lahore. He
was hero in first silent film and director of first talkie film.
Inaugural Urdu/Hindi Indo-Pak feature film
Imperial Film Company Presents
Alam Ara
Urdu/Hindi (124 minutes, black & white)
Released on: Saturday, March 14, 1931 (Capital Cinema Lahore)
India's first talkie film was released at Bombay's Majestic cinema hall. It had seven songs and was 10,500
ft. long and ran for seven weeks. It was a costume drama and romantic film.
Story: A period fantasy that told of the ageing king of Kamarpur, and his two rival queens, Navbahar and
Dilbahar, and their rivalry when a fakir predicts that Navbahar will bear the king's heir. Dilbahar
unsuccessfully tries to seduce the army chief Adil (Vithal) and vengefully destroys his family, leaving his
daughter Alam Ara (Zubaida) to be raised by nomads. Eventually, Alam Ara's nomad friends invade the
palace, expose Dilbahar's schemes, release Adil from the dungeon and she marries the prince of the realm.
Actors: Zubaida (Alam Ara), Master Vitthal (Adil), J. Sushila (as Sushila), Jillo Bai, Prithviraj Kapoor, Elizer,
Wazir Mohammed Khan, Jagdish Sethi and L.V. Prasad
Music: Feroz Shah and B. Irani
Singers: Zubaida, W.M. Khan
First ever Punjabi feature film
Heer Ranjha
Punjabi
Realesed in: 1932
The first ever Lahore made film.
Actors: Anwari Begum, Rafiq Ghazniv, Gul Hameed, Lala Yaqoob, M. Ismael, Fazal Shah, Walait Begum.
Anwari Begum and Rafiq Ghaznavi - the grand parent of Salma Agha - played title roles in this memorable
film. Rafiq Ghaznavi was a famous musician in the 30s and 40s and Anwari Begum appeared in many films,
one of them was Anmol Ghari.
Music: Rafiq Ghaznavi
Folk music comes to films
Pancholi Art Pictures
Khazanchi
Realesed in: 1941
Actors: Ramola, Naring, M. Ismael, Manorma, Ajmal, Janki Das, Durga Khote
Music: Revolutionary music director Master Ghulam Haidar changed the whole style of film music from
classical Bengali to folk Punjabi music in this mega hit film from Lahore. Master Ghulam Haidar
introduced Baby Noor Jehan as playback singer in this film first time. (He also introduced Indian diva Lata
Mangeshkar in film Majboor in 1948).
Mehoboob Production Ltd. (Bombay-Lahore)
Anmol Gharri (Urdu/Hindi)
Released in: 1946
Actors: Noor Jehan, Surender, Surayya, Zahoor Raja, Leela Mishra, Anwari Begum, Bhudo Anvari, Murad
Director: Mehboob Khan, one of the greatest film director in the history, was not formerly educated. This
film is special because it brought almost a revolution in subcontinent film world.
Music: One of the most memorable and melodious film by Noushad Ali from the 40s. Naushad Ali is
regarded as one of the greatest Music Directors of Indian Cinema.
Assistent: Ghulam Ahamd (Pakeeza fame)
Lyrics: Tanvir Naqvi was a relative of Madam Noor Jehan and a very successful lyricist....
Singers: Noor Jehan was the most impressive film personality in the Indo-Pak film history. She was
dominating since her debut as a child star (1935).
Surayya was another famous singer/actress from the 40s and 50s. Born in Lahore, she debuted as a child
star with Taj Mahal (1941).
Shamshad Begum was the first generation of top Punjabi film singers (followd by Zubaida Khanum (in
the 50s) and Madam Noor Jehan (from 40s-90s), respectively). One can‘t forget Shamshad's mega hit
Punjabi songs as:
- Batti baal ke Banerey utte rakhni aan
- Meri lagdi kise na wekhi, te tutdi nu jugg janda
- Ni tutt jaye Rail Gadiye, too rok leya Chann mera
- Jutt Kurdian toon darda mara
Mohammad Rafi and Surindra – all from Punjab, Lahore.
Film songs:
Tera Khilona tuta Balik, hai qismat ne tujh ko... Mohammad Rafi
Aaja meri barbad mohabbat ke sahare ... Madam Noor Jehan
Mere bachpan ke saathi mujhe bhool na jana... Madam Noor Jehan
Jawan hai mohabbat, haseen hai zamana... Madam Noor Jehan
Kya mil geya Bhagwan tumhe dil ko dukha ke… Madam Noor Jehan
The Last Big "Pakistani" film before partition
Shoukat Arts Productions
J U G N U
Urdu/Hindi
Released on: 1947
This film was the last big film by Madam Noor Jehan and her husband director Shaukat Hussain Rizvi
before partition. It was a big musical and romantic film. Madam Noor Jehan was on peak of her film career
as singer and film heroine. Dillip Kumar and Mohammad Rafi got breakthrough from this film.
Actors: Dilip Kumar - the acting legend - got breakthrough from this mega hit film. He was born in
Peshawar...
Music: Feroz Nizami, completed hat trick of three great musical film, first Jugnu in 1947, then Chann We
in 1951 and Dopatta 1952 - all with Noor Jehan, & G. A. Chishti was a legendry musician in Punjabi films.
He dominated Pakistani film music until the beginning of the 70s.
Singers: Madam Noor Jehan, Shamshad Begum.
Mohammad Rafi was a legend and he left behind a rich legacy of songs in Urdu/Hindi, Punjabi and many
other languages. Started his singing career from Lahore...
Roshan Ara Begum was acclaimed the best exponent of Kirana gharana style of khayal singing in the
subcontinent...
Pakistani artists started their film careers before 1947
A.R.Kardar (actor/director) Daughters of Today 1924
M. Ismael (actor) Daughters of Today 1924
Rafiq Ghaznavi (musician) Heer Ranjha 1932
Ghulam Mohammad (actor) Madhuri 1933
Zahoor Shah (actor) Majnoo 1935/1933
Mukhtar Begum (singer/actress) Naveli Dulhan 1933
Noor Mohammad Charlie (comedian) Nadra 1933
A. Shah Shikarpuri (comedian) Fadaye Toheed 1934
Nazir (actor/director) Aab-e-Hayyat 1934
Master Ghulam Haidar (musician) Sanjog ki Seerhi 1935
Najmul Hassan (actor) Jawani ki hawa 1935
Noor Jehan (singer/actress) Pind di Kurri 1935
S.M. Yousuf (director) Bharat ka Laal 1935
Rekha (actress) Neela 1935
Kumar (actor) Hamari Betian 1936
Ajay Kumar (actor) Mard ka Bacha 1936
G.A.Chishti (musician) Sohni Mehinwal 1937
Agha Salim Raza (actor) Gul Bakawli 1939
Ajmal (actor) Gul Bakawli 1939
Khursheed Anwar (musician) Kurmai 1940
Gul Zaman (actor) Mard-e-Punjab 1940
Najam Naqvi (director) Puttar Millan 1940
Zahoor Raja (actor) Pooja 1940
Majeed (actor) Sandesa 1940
Ragni (actress) Himmat 1940
W.Z. Ahmad (director) Ek Raat 1942
Masood Pervez (actor/director) Mangti 1942
Shoukat Hussain Rizvi (director) Khandan 1942
Hamaliya Wala (actor) Kis ki Bivi 1942
M. Sadiq (director) Namastey 1943
Sheikh Iqbal (actor) Champa 1945
Sharif Nayyar (director) Laila Majnu 1945
Rasheed Attre (musician) Sheerin Farhad 1945
Meena Shori (actress) Rutt Rangeeli 1945
Asha Posley (actress) Champa 1945
Renuka Devi (actress) Ghulami 1945
Feroz Nizami (musician) Ammar Raj 1946
Master Inayat Hussain (musician) Kamli 1946
Luqman (director) Hamjoli 1946
Nisar Bazmi (musician) Jamna Paar 1946
Nashaad (musician) Dildar 1947
Nasreen (actress) Ek Roz 1947
Shah Nawaz (actor) Elan 1947
Sudhir (actor) Farz 1947
Santosh (actor) Ahensa 1947
Rehana (actress) Saajan 1947
Talish (actor) Saraye ke baad 1947
Ilyas Kashmiri (actor) Malka 1947
Tufail Farooqi (musician) Dekho Jee 1947
Fateh Ali Khan (musician) Director 1947
First Color film:
Ardeshir Irani's Kisan Kanya (1937) was the first color film. Sohrab Modi's Jhansi Ki Rani (1953) was the
first Techni-color film shot in India.
After partition
1948
Inaugural Pakistani film.
Teri Yaad (Urdu)
Teri Yaad became the first ever released film but not the first film production in Pakistan. It was completed
in a record time. Lahore was the third biggest film center in sub-continent - after Bombay and Calcutta -
and there were many films under production in 1947
Released in: Perbhat (Sanober) Cinema, Lahore on August 7th, 1948. It was an Eid-ul-Fittar Day.
Teri Yaad was a dead flop film and the only attraction was film hero Nasir Khan, who was brother of the
legendry Dillip Kumar. Asha Poslay was introduced as heroine, but she never became a successful film
heroine. Her father Nath, was music director of this film.
Music: Inayat Ali Naath
Lyrics: Qateel Shafai became the first film poet in Pakistan. He had a long and successful film career...
Singers: Munawar Sultana, Asha Poslay & Ali Bakhsh Zahoor
1949
Pheray
First Silver Jubilee Punjabi Film.
The first ever Punjabi and the sixth film in the list of released Pakistani films celebrated a great success in
cinemas. Veteran Producer and Director Nazir got the honour to become the first Silver Jubilee film maker.
He was also the only choice as hero in 1949.
Pakistans first ever produced Punjabi film Pheray was a re-make of Nazirs Indian urdu/hindi film "Gaon ki
Gori" (1945). It was a big musical hit and the Music Director G. A. Chishti wrote, composed and recorded
six songs of this film in a single day! Chishti was also the most productive Music Director in the first 25
years of Pakistan.
Music: G. A. Chishti
Singers: Munawar Sultana & Inayat Hussain Bhatti
Changes the films brought
Entertainment.
Cinema houses - a new business.
Jobs in thousands for acting, direction, music, sets, lighting, recording, cinematography etc.
Billboards all over in so much color - landscape changed.
Manifested culture and in return influenced culture – dresses, languages, living style, harmony etc.
Strong expression against hated figures in society, oppressors- at least can see on screen.
Boldness, vulgarity, obscenity – the dark side of films.
LESSON 29
PROPAGANDA
Message conveyed in order to support and spread a particular opinion or point of view, engaging
the emotions of the audience. In another manner it could be said as the planned dissemination of news,
information, special arguments, and appeals designed to influence the beliefs, thoughts, and actions of a
specific group."
The term propaganda carries many definitions. Harold Lasswell, a pioneer of propaganda studies, defines it
as "the management of collective attitudes by the manipulation of significant symbols." Like other social
scientists, he emphasizes its psychological elements: propaganda was a subconscious manipulation of
psychological symbols to accomplish secret objectives. Subsequent analysts stressed that propaganda was a
planned and deliberate act of opinion management.
History
The term comes from Congregatio de Propaganda Fide (Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith), a
missionary organization established by the Pope in 1622. Propagandists emphasize the elements of
information that support their position and de-emphasize or exclude those that do not. Misleading
statements and even lies may be used to create the desired effect in the public audience. Lobbying,
advertising, and missionary activity are all forms of propaganda, but the term is most commonly used in the
political arena.
Prior to the 20th century, pictures and the written media were the principal instruments of propaganda;
radio, television, motion pictures, and the internet later joined their ranks.
Interestingly, authoritarian and totalitarian regimes use propaganda to win and keep the support of the
populace. In wartime, propaganda directed by a country at its own civilian population and military forces
can boost morale; propaganda aimed at the enemy is an element of psychological warfare.
Types of Propaganda
Modern practitioners of propaganda utilize various schemes to classify different types of propaganda
activities. One such categorization classifies propaganda as:
White Propaganda
Grey Propaganda
Black Propaganda
White propaganda is correctly attributed to the sponsor and the source is truthfully identified. (The
government, Voice of America, for example, broadcasts white propaganda.)
Grey propaganda, on the other hand, is un-attributed to the sponsor and conceals the real source of the
propaganda. The objective of grey propaganda is to advance viewpoints that are in the interest of the
originator but that would be more acceptable to target audiences than official statements. The reasoning is
that propaganda materials from an identified propaganda agency might convince few, but the same ideas
presented by seemingly neutral outlets would be more persuasive.
Un-attributed publications, such as articles in newspapers written by a disguised source, are part of grey
propaganda. Other tactics involve wide dissemination of ideas put forth by others—by foreign
governments, by national and international media outlets, or by private groups, individuals, and institutions.
Grey propaganda also includes material assistance provided to groups that put forth views deemed useful to
the propagandist. This type is very common in news world. E.g. some people have expressed disliking on
or, people have appreciated government move to ban opposition rallies on the roads etc.
Black propaganda also masks the sponsor's participation. But while grey propaganda is un-attributed, black
propaganda is falsely attributed. Black propaganda is subversive and provocative; it is usually designed to
appear to have originated from a hostile source, in order to cause that source embarrassment, to damage its
prestige, to undermine its credibility, or to get it to take actions that it might not otherwise. Black
propaganda is usually prepared by secret agents or an intelligence service because it would be damaging to
the originating government if it were discovered. It routinely employs underground newspapers, forged
documents, planted gossip or rumors, jokes, slogans, and visual symbols. For instance, a newspaper
publishes a letter by a prominent politician to another asking for certain action. The letter may serve
purpose of some interested group. The fact is that there has been no such letter ever existed. But damage
has been done especially if it is done during election days.
Types in another manner
Another categorization distinguishes between "fast" and "slow" propaganda operations, based on
the type of media employed and the immediacy of the effect desired. Fast media are designed to exert a
short-term impact on public opinion, while the use of slow media cultivates public opinion over the long
period. Fast media typically include radio, newspapers, speeches, television, moving pictures, and e-mail and
internet. These forms of communication are able to exert an almost instantaneous effect on selected
audiences.
Books, cultural exhibitions, and educational exchanges and activities, on the other hand are slow media that
seek to inculcate ideas and attitudes over time.
Revolution, War, and Propaganda to 1917
Propaganda has a long history. War propaganda is as ancient as war itself. Anthropologists have
unearthed evidence that primitive peoples used pictures and symbols to impress others with their hunting
and fighting capabilities. The Assyrian, Greek, and Roman empires employed storytelling, poems, religious
symbols, monuments, speeches, documents, and other means of communication to mobilize their armed
forces or demoralize those of their enemies. As early as the fifth century B.C., the Chinese military
philosopher Sun Tzu advocated various techniques to maintain fighting morale and to destroy the enemy's
will to fight. The nineteenth-century German military strategist Carl von Clausewitz identified psychological
forces as decisive elements of modern war.
Thus, propaganda is not, as it is sometimes believed, a twentieth-century phenomenon born of the
electronic communications revolution. Although the concept is often associated with dictatorship, political
propaganda has been an essential ingredient of the democratic process, as politicians and political parties
have employed a range of communication techniques to win public support for their ideas and policies.
Advertising & public relations used as propaganda
Similarly, countless private groups—from early antislavery societies to modern political action
committees—have turned to propaganda techniques to push their agendas. Advertising and public relations,
fields that came into fruition during the early twentieth century, have made commercial propaganda a
permanent feature of the cultural landscape.
Propaganda in revolutions
Propaganda and agitation were essential components of the American Revolution. Prior to the
outbreak of hostilities, propaganda played a pivotal role in creating the intellectual and psychological climate
of the revolution itself.
Philip Davidson, in his history of the propaganda of the American Revolution, documented a remarkably
sophisticated grasp of propaganda techniques among the leading organizers of the Revolution. The
evidence of a conscious, systematic effort by colonial leaders to gain public support for their ideas is
unmistakable. George Washington advocated the release of information "in a manner calculated to attract
the attention and impress the minds of the people." Thomas Paine was the Revolution's most famous (and
radical) propagandist. He wrote numerous pamphlets articulating with rhetorical to flourish the ideological
justification for the Revolution.
Several revolutionaries employed the tactics that would later be known as grey propaganda. They wrote
articles, letters, and pamphlets under pseudonyms to disguise their identities and to create the impression
that opposition to British policies was much greater than it was. Samuel Adams, for example, wrote under
twenty-five different pseudonyms in numerous publications. Benjamin Franklin articulated a shrewd
understanding of the techniques of propaganda, including the use of grey and black materials. He remarked,
"The facility with which the same truths may be repeatedly enforced by placing them daily in different lights
in newspapers…gives a great chance of establishing them. And we now find that it is not only right to strike
while the iron is hot but that it may be very practicable to heat it by continually striking."
In 1777 he distributed a phony letter, purportedly written by a German commander of Hessian mercenaries, indicating that the
British government advised him to let wounded soldiers die. The letter caused a sensation in France and also induced numerous
desertions by the Hessian mercenaries. Franklin also forged an entire issue of the Boston Independent, which contained a
fabricated account of British scalp hunting. The story touched off a public uproar in Britain and was used by opposition
politicians to attack the conduct of the war. The historian Oliver Thomson described these efforts as "one of the most thorough
campaigns of diplomatic isolation by propaganda ever mounted."
World Wars - 1914–1945
Notwithstanding this early experience with propaganda, it was primarily the age of total war that
inducted Governments in to the business of propaganda. During World War I, national governments
employed propaganda on an unprecedented scale. The arrival of the modern mass media together with the
requirements of total war made propaganda an indispensable element of wartime mobilization. All of the
major belligerents turned to propaganda to woo neutrals, demoralize enemies, boost the morale of their
troops, and mobilize the support of civilians.
One of the most vital of all World War I propaganda battles was the struggle between Germany and Britain
for the sympathy of the American people. The German government organized a program of propaganda in
the United States that was so heavy-handed it did more to alienate American public opinion than to win it.
The British government, on the other hand, conducted most of its propaganda in the United States covertly,
through a secret propaganda bureau directed by the Foreign Office. The British adopted a low-key
approach that selectively released news and information to win American sympathies. The publication of
the Zimmerman telegram in 1917 (in which Germany sought to enlist Mexico in a war with the United
States) was undoubtedly the most important propaganda achievement of the British, and it helped to bring
the Americans into the war on the Allied side.
A week after declaring war, President Woodrow Wilson established the first official propaganda agency of
the U.S. government to manage public opinion at home and abroad—the Committee on Public
Information. Headed by the muckraking journalist George Creel, the committee was responsible for
censorship, propaganda, and general information about the war effort. The Creel committee focused on
mobilizing support on the home front, but it also conducted an extensive campaign of propaganda abroad,
overseeing operations in more than thirty overseas countries.
The committee bombarded foreign media outlets with news, official statements, and features on the war
effort and on American life, using leaflets, motion pictures, photographs, cartoons, posters, and signboards
to promote its messages. The committee established reading rooms abroad, brought foreign journalists to
the United States, crafted special appeals for teachers and labor groups, and sponsored lectures and
seminars.
Democratic governments & Propaganda
A series of investigations in the 1920s exposed the nature and scope of Britain's propaganda
campaign in the United States, including revelations that the British had fabricated numerous stories about
German atrocities. Many Americans came to blame British propaganda for bringing the United States into a
wasteful and ruinous war, and the practice of propaganda became associated with deceit and trickery. It was
thus in the aftermath of World War I that propaganda acquired its negative connotations—a development
that stemmed from the employment of propaganda by a democracy, not, as is generally supposed, from that
of a dictatorship.
These propaganda campaigns affected the United States in other ways as well. The belief that Americans
had been tricked into participating in the First World War delayed U.S. intervention in the second.
Moreover, news of Nazi atrocities connected to the Holocaust were greeted incredulously by the American
public in part because of the exaggerated and fabricated atrocity propaganda released by the British two
decades earlier.
The development of radio revolutionized the practice of propaganda by making it possible to reach
audiences of unprecedented size instantaneously. A short-wave propaganda battle began in the mid-1920s as
the Soviet Union, Germany, Japan, and Britain developed international broadcasting capabilities.
In the early part of 1941, as war appeared imminent, Roosevelt created several additional agencies to
disseminate propaganda at home and abroad. In 1942 these various information programs were combined
into the Office of War Information (OWI) under the direction of the well-known journalist and broadcaster
Elmer Davis. Roosevelt also established the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), the forerunner of the
Central Intelligence Agency, and authorized it to engage in black and gray propaganda abroad, mostly in
connection with military operations.
Psychological warfare – a new name for propaganda
In December 1942, General Dwight D. Eisenhower created a separate psychological warfare
branch of the army to participate in the Allied invasion of North Africa. In 1944 he created an even larger
organization, the Psychological Warfare Division of the Supreme Headquarters, Allied Expeditionary Force,
to prepare propaganda for the D-Day invasion. Psychological warfare was especially important in the Pacific
theater, where U.S. propaganda sought to convince Japanese soldiers—who had been taught by their army
that to surrender meant relinquishing their place as members of Japanese society—to cease resistance.
Cold War
In 1950, Truman called for an intensified program of propaganda known as the Campaign of
Truth. In a speech delivered to the American Society of Newspaper Editors, Truman articulated the
perennial domestic justification for official U.S. propaganda: in order to combat enemy lies, the U.S. needed
to promote the truth. Under the Campaign of Truth cartoons depicting bloodthirsty communists,
vituperative anticommunist polemics, and sensational commentary was made at a massive scale.
In April 1951, Truman created the Psychological Strategy Board to coordinate the American psychological
warfare effort. The board acted as a coordinating body for all nonmilitary Cold War activities, including
covert operations. It supervised programs for aggressive clandestine warfare and propaganda measures
against the Soviet bloc and it developed "psychological strategy" plans for dozens of countries in Western
Europe, Asia, and the Middle East. By the time Truman left office, the U.S. government had established a
far-reaching apparatus for influencing public opinion in both friendly and hostile countries.
The CIA also conducted clandestine propaganda operations in allied and neutral areas. The agency
subsidized noncommunist labor unions, journalists, political parties, politicians, and student groups. In
Western Europe the CIA conducted a secret program of cultural and ideological propaganda through the
Congress for Cultural Freedom, a purportedly private, but CIA-funded, organization that supported the
work of anticommunist liberals. Through the Congress for Cultural Freedom, the agency published more
than twenty prestigious magazines, held art exhibitions, operated a news and feature service, organized highprofile
international conferences, published numerous books, and sponsored public performances by
musicians and artists.
During the Korean War, sensationalized charges that the United States had been waging bacteriological warfare, accounts of
Soviet brainwashing techniques, and communist-inspired "peace" campaigns, focused American attention on psychological
warfare as a mysterious Cold War weapon. During the 1952 presidential campaign, Eisenhower repeatedly called for an
expansive and coordinated psychological warfare effort on a national scale. In San Francisco he delivered a major speech on the
subject, arguing that every significant act of government should reflect psychological warfare calculations. He emphasized that the
Cold War was a struggle of ideas and argued that the United States must develop every psychological weapon available to win
the hearts and minds of the world's peoples
Propaganda, Diplomacy, and International Public Opinion
The Cold War inaugurated a paradigm shift in the practice of diplomacy that reflected changes in
the nature of diplomatic activity worldwide. Through propaganda, policy initiatives, and covert action,
agents of the governments acted directly to influence the ideas, values, beliefs, opinions, actions, politics,
and culture of other countries. Foreign affairs personnel not only observed and reported, they also
participated in events or tried to influence the way that they happened. The old maxim that one government
does not interfere in the internal affairs of another had been swept aside.
The pattern of international relations was further transformed by the electronic communications revolution
and the emergence of popular opinion as a significant force in foreign affairs. Foreign policy could no
longer be pursued as it had during the nineteenth century, when diplomacy was the exclusive area of
diplomats. Developments in mass communication and the increased attentiveness to domestic audiences
abroad to foreign affairs meant that the target of diplomacy had now widened to include popular opinion as
much, if not more so, than traditional diplomatic activities.
LESSON 30
RADIO – A BREAKTHROUGH IN MASS COMMUNICATION
People around the world were benefiting from the newspapers as one fine mean of mass
communication since the middle of 15th century that in the last decade of the 19th century scientists came
close to opening gates for an entirely different means of communication which would require no paper and
printing press and transportation of the publication. It was a mean to carry your voice to million others in a
flash of an eye. It was the invention of radio.
It was a miracle in the field of mass communication that a person could address a very number of audiences
and that too, to a distance of thousands of kilometers away.
What is radio?
Radio is a technology that allows the transmission of signals by modulation of electromagnetic
waves with frequencies below those of light.
Science of Radio waves
Radio waves are a form of electromagnetic radiation, and are created whenever a charged object
accelerates with a frequency that lies in the radio frequency (RF) portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
This is the range from a few tens of hertz to a few giga hertz. Electromagnetic radiation travels by means of
oscillating electric and magnetic fields that pass through the air and the vacuum of space equally well, and
does not require a medium of transport.
By contrast, other types of electromagnetic radiation, with frequencies above the RF range are gamma rays,
X-rays, and infrared, ultraviolet and visible light.
How the miracle came about?
The theoretical basis of the propagation of electromagnetic waves was first described in 1873 by
James Clerk Maxwell in his paper to the Royal Society A dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field, which
followed his work between 1861 and 1865.
In 1878 David E. Hughes was the first to transmit and receive radio waves when he noticed that his
induction balance caused noise in the receiver of his homemade telephone. He demonstrated his discovery
to the Royal Society in 1880 but was told it was merely induction.
It was Heinrich Rudolf Hertz who, between 1886 and 1888, first validated Maxwell's theory through
experiment, demonstrating that radio radiation had all the properties of waves. A great achievement indeed
it proved to be.
Marconi recognized as radio inventor
In 1896 Guglielmo Marconi was awarded what is sometimes recognized as the world's first patent
for radio with British Patent 12039, Improvements in transmitting electrical impulses and signals and in apparatus therefor.
In 1897 he established the world's first Radio Station on the Isle of Wight, England. The same year in
the USA, some key developments in radio's early history were created and patented by Nikola Tesla. The
US Patent Office reversed its decision in 1904, awarding Guglielmo Marconi a patent for the invention of
radio, possibly influenced by Marconi's financial backers in the States, who included Thomas Edison and
Andrew Carnegie. Some believe this was done to allow the US Government to avoid having to pay the
royalties that were being claimed by Nikola Tesla for use of his patents.
In 1909 Marconi, with Karl Ferdinand Braun, was also awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for
"contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy". Marconi opened the world's first "wireless"
factory in Hall Street, Chelmsford, England in 1898, employing around 50 people. Around 1900, Tesla
opened the Wardenclyffe Tower facility and advertised services. By 1903, the tower structure neared
completion. Various theories exist on how Tesla intended to achieve the goals of this wireless system
(reportedly, a 200 kW system). Tesla claimed that Wardenclyffe, as part of a World System of transmitters,
would have allowed secure multichannel transceiving of information, universal navigation, time
synchronization, and a global location system.
Others work acknowledgement
In 1894 British physicist Sir Oliver Lodge demonstrated the possibility of signaling using radio
waves using a detecting device called a coherer, a tube filled with iron filings which had been invented by
Temistocle Calzecchi-Onesti at Fermo in Italy in 1884. Edouard Branly of France and Alexander Popov of
Russia later produced improved versions of the coherer. Popov, who developed a practical communication
system based on the coherer, is often considered by his own countrymen to have been the inventor of
radio.
On Christmas Eve, 1906, Reginald Fessenden (using his heterodyne principle) transmitted the first radio
audio broadcast in history from Brant Rock, Massachusetts. Ships at sea heard a broadcast that included
Fessenden playing the song O Holy Night on the violin and reading a passage from the Bible. The world's
first radio news programme was broadcast August 31st 1920 by station 8MK in Detroit, Michigan. The
world's first regular wireless broadcasts for entertainment commenced in 1922 from the Marconi Research
Centre at Writtle near Chelmsford, England, which was also the location of the world's first "wireless"
factory.
Early radios ran the entire power of the transmitter through a carbon microphone. While some early radios
used some type of amplification through electric current or battery, through the mid 1920s the most
common type of receiver was the Crystal set. In the 1920s, amplifying vacuum tubes revolutionized both
radio receivers and radio transmitters.
Advancement on radio technology continues
• Aircraft used commercial AM radio stations for navigation. This continued through the early 1960s
when VOR systems finally became widespread (though AM stations are still marked on United
States aviation charts).
• In the early 1930s, single sideband and frequency modulation were invented by amateur radio
operators. By the end of the decade, they were established commercial modes.
• Radio was used to transmit pictures visible as television as early as the 1920s. Standard analog
transmissions started in North America and Europe in the 1940s.
• In 1954, Regency introduced a pocket transistor radio, the TR-1, powered by a "standard 22.5V
Battery".
• In 1960, Sony introduced their first transistorized radio, small enough to fit in a vest pocket, and
able to be powered by a small battery. It was durable, because there were no tubes to burn out.
Over the next twenty years, transistors displaced tubes almost completely except for very high
power, or very high frequency, uses.
• In 1963 color television was commercially transmitted, and the first (radio) communication satellite,
TELSTAR, was launched.
• In the late 1960s, the U.S. long-distance telephone network began to convert to a digital network,
employing digital radios for many of its links.
• In the 1970s, LORAN became the premier radio navigation system. Soon, the U.S. Navy
experimented with satellite navigation, culminating in the invention and launch of the GPS
constellation in 1987.
• In the early 1990s, amateur radio experimenters began to use personal computers with audio cards
to process radio signals. In 1994, the U.S. Army and DARPA launched an aggressive, successful
project to construct a software radio that could become a different radio on the fly by changing
software.
• Digital transmissions began to be applied to broadcasting in the late 1990s.
World grabs radio for a range of uses
AM broadcast radio sends music and voice in the Medium Frequency (MF -- 0.300 MHz to 3
MHz) radio spectrum. AM radio uses amplitude modulation, in which louder sounds at the
microphone causes wider fluctuations in the transmitter power while the transmitter frequency
remains unchanged. Transmissions are affected by static because lightning and other sources of
radio add their radio waves to the ones from the transmitter.
FM broadcast radio sends music and voice, with higher fidelity than AM radio. In frequency
modulation, louder sounds at the microphone cause the transmitter frequency to fluctuate farther,
the transmitter power stays constant. FM is transmitted in the Very High Frequency (VHF -- 30
MHz to 300 MHz) radio spectrum. FM requires more radio frequency space than AM and there are
more frequencies available at higher frequencies, so there can be more stations, each sending more
information. Another effect is that the shorter radio waves act more like light, travelling in straight
lines that are not reflected back towards the Earth by the ionosphere, resulting in a shorter effective
reception range.
Aviation voice radios use VHF AM. AM is used so that multiple stations on the same channel can
be received. (Use of FM would result in stronger stations blocking out reception of weaker stations
due to FM's capture effect). Aircraft are often so high that their radios can see hundreds of miles,
even though they are using VHF.
Marine voice radios can use AM in the shortwave High Frequency (HF -- 3 MHz to 30 MHz) radio
spectrum for very long ranges or narrowband FM in the VHF spectrum for much shorter ranges.
TETRA, Terrestrial Trunked Radio is a digital cell phone system for military, police and
ambulances.
Civil and military HF (high frequency) voice services use shortwave radio to contact ships at sea,
aircraft and isolated settlements.
Government, police, fire and commercial voice services use narrowband FM on special frequencies.
Fidelity is sacrificed to use a smaller range of radio frequencies, usually five kilohertz of deviation (5
thousand cycles per second) for maximum pressure, rather than the 75 used by FM broadcasts and
25 used by TV sound.
What to broadcast
Early radio stations faced the problem of target audience, especially in a pluralistic society. The
economic growth in certain parts of the world also helped radio stations to shape their program. So a part
of broadcast was meant to the specific nature of audience along side news and entertainment. In Pakistan all
radio stations begin their transmission with recitation from Quran due to specific nature of the audience.
Other societies with religious dominance do the same.
Distribution of time
For religious programs
News and views
Entertainment ... music, plays, children and women.
Education ... on health and common social life matters.
LESSON 32
TELEVISION – A NEW DIMENSION IN MASS COMMUNICATION
Television is the process of capturing photographic images, converting them into electrical
impulses, and then transmitting the signal to a decoding receiver. Conventional transmission is by means of
electromagnetic radiation, using the methods of radio.
Among the technical developments that have come to dominate our lives, television is surely one of the top
few. In the developed world, the average household watches television for seven hours per day, which
helps to explain why news, sports, and educational entities, as well as advertisers, value the device for
communication.
The device we call the television is really an image and sound receiver that is the end point of a broadcast
system that starts with a television camera or transmitter and requires a complicated network of transmitters
using ground-based towers, cables, and satellites to deliver the original picture to our living rooms.
TV came like a bang as the time distance between the invention of radio and television is not much. People
across the world were still amazed by the presence of radio in their lives that within years they were having a
device which also showed images with sound – a great fun indeed.
How it started?
The electronic way of communication was quite well know by the start of the 20th century but in
almost all cases it was limit to sending or receiving voice messages. Since most researchers and scientists
were focusing on the voice transmission, the radio broadcast resulted almost simultaneously in many parts
of the world with the exception of a difference of few years. The name of Marconi, however, stands
distinguished in the eyes of many as the inventor of radio.
The inventor of television, the device responsible for receiving voice as well as images, is John Logie Baird
of Scotland. But obviously the new invention has been the result of the extensive work done by scores of
other scientists as well. The development of the television occurred over a number of years, in many
countries, and using a wide application of sciences, including electricity, mechanical engineering,
electromagnetism, sound technology, and electrochemistry. No single person invented the television;
instead, it is a compilation of inventions perfected by fierce competition.
Early Discoveries
Chemicals that are conductors of electricity were among the first discoveries leading to the TV.
Baron Ȯns Berzelius of Sweden isolated selenium in 1817, and Louis May of Great Britain discovered, in
1873, that the element is a strong electrical conductor. Sir William Crookes invented the cathode ray tube in
1878, but these discoveries took many years to merge into the common ground of television.
Paul Nipkow of Germany made the first crude television in 1884. His mechanical system used a scanning
disk with small holes to pick up image fragments and imprint them on a light-sensitive selenium tube. A
receiver reassembled the picture. In 1888, W. Hallwachs applied photoelectric cells in cameras; cathode rays
were demonstrated as devices for reassembling the image at the receiver by Boris Rosing of Russia and A.
A. Campbell-Swinton of Great Britain, both working independently in 1907. Countless radio pioneers
including Thomas Edison invented methods of broadcasting television signals.
Although Logie Baird had been developing his own methods of televised images for many years it was in
1924 that he first demonstrated a mechanically scanned television system which transmitted objects in
outline and went on the following year to show the head of a dummy, not just in outline but as a real image.
First Pictures were shown on Sept 7, 1927.
TV changes some basic concepts
TV is largely responsible for bringing about so many social, cultural and economic changes- and
that too with rapid speed, and is considered as one major factor to help globalize human thinking and
understanding on various matters by fully exploiting all the elements possible in visual communication, or
say broadcasting. More on this aspect will be discussed in a coming lecture.
By 1935, mechanical systems for transmitting black-and-white images were replaced completely by
electronic methods that could generate hundreds of horizontal bands at 30 frames per second. Vladimir K.
Zworykin, a Russian immigrant who first worked for Westinghouse, patented an electronic camera tube
based on the cathode tube. Philo T. Farnsworth and Allen B. Dumont, both Americans, developed a pickup
tube that became the home television receiver by 1939.
From Black and White to color
The Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) had entered the color TV fray and battled with RCA to
perfect color television, initially with mechanical methods until an all-electronic color system could be
developed. Rival broadcasts appeared throughout the 1940s although progress was slowed by both World
War II and the Korean War. The first CBS color broadcast on June 25, 1951, featured Ed Sullivan and
other stars of the network.
Commercial color television broadcasts were underway in the United States by 1954.
In December of 1954, RCA introduced their 21" color TV. Although the number recorded in history
books is 5,000 units sold, the common belief (amongst collectors) is that the actual number sold to the
public was considerably less.
1950-1959 was an exciting time period for television. In the USA, B&W television exploded onto the scene
at the beginning of the decade, mid-decade saw electronic color television and remote controls launched,
and at the end of the decade the public witnessed some interesting styling changes and the introduction of
transistorized television.
II World War
The sudden outbreak of WW2 halted to some extent progress on TV transmissions and
improvement in technological advancement in making TV a household item for most. The B/W limited
scale TV transmission continued to excite people. The images of war ridden and ravaged sites on mini
screens of old-fashioned TV sets would pull crowd to watch those and get influenced by the devastation of
the mad war. Seeing is believing, worked to make people understand as who was winning the war and who
was controlling the known cities at different stages of the years long fighting. It was a sight not to be
forgotten for those who first witnessed defeat of German armies at different fronts and marching of the
allied forces on the German land towards the last days of the war.
TV Programs
TV program pattern remained like the ones seen on radio broadcast. Classification of its
transmission has been made in the following manner.
News
Music
Films
Comedy shows
Live shows
Sports
There are currently 3 main television transmission standards used throughout the world:
NTSC - National Television Standards Committee. The oldest existing standard, developed in the USA.
First used in 1954. Consists of 525 horizontal lines of display and 60 vertical lines.
SECAM - Système Électronique pour Couleur avec Mémoire. Developed in France. First used in 1967. A
625-line vertical, 50-line horizontal display.
PAL - Phase Alternating Line. Developed by German engineer Walter Bruch who patented his invention
1963 and the first commercial application of the PAL system was in August 1967. Also a 625/50-line
display and alternative of NTSC. Proponents call it "Perfection At Last."
Broadcast, Cable, and Satellite Television Transmission
Television programs may be transmitted either ―live‖ or from a recording. The principle means of
recording television programs for future use is videotape recording. Videotape recording is similar to
conventional tape recording .The sound is recorded along with the video signal on the same tape.
When a television program is broadcast, the varying electrical signals are then amplified and used to
modulate a carrier wave the modulated carrier is usually fed to an antenna, where it is converted to
electromagnetic waves and broadcast over a large region. The waves are sensed by antennas connected to
television receivers.
The range of waves suitable for radio and television transmission is divided into channels, which are
assigned to broadcast companies or services.
Most television viewers across the world no longer receive signals by using antennas; instead, they receive
programming via cable television. Cable delivery of television started as a way to improve reception. A
single, well-placed community antenna received the broadcast signals and distributed them over coaxial or
fiber-optic cables to areas that otherwise would not be able to receive them. Today, cable television is
popular because of the wide variety of programming it can deliver. Many systems now provide more than
100 channels of programming. Typically, a cable television company receives signals relayed from a
communications satellite and sends those signals to its subscribers.
The first transatlantic television broadcast was accomplished by such a satellite, called Telstar, on July 10,
1962. Some television viewers use small satellite dishes to receive signals directly from satellites. Most
satellite-delivered signals are scrambled and require a special decoder to receive them clearly.
The Future
The future of television seems bright. More research is going into this process. High Definition
Television (HDTV) was developed by the Japanese Broadcast Corporation and first demonstrated in 1982.
This system produces a movie-quality picture by using a 1,125-line picture on a "letter-box" format screen
with a 16 to nine width to height ratio. High-quality, flat screens suitable for HDTV, are being perfected
using synthetic diamond film to emit electrons in the first application of synthetic diamonds in electronic
components.
Other developments in the receiver include gold-plated jacks, an internal polarity switch on large screens
that compensates for the effect of Earth's magnetic field on image reception, accessories to eliminate ghosts
on the screen. Liquid crystal display (LCD) technology is also advancing rapidly as an alternative to the
cumbersome television screen. Assorted computer chips add functions like channel labeling, time and data
displays, swap and freeze motions, parental channel control, touch screens, and a range of channel-surfing
options.
Digital television of the future will allow the viewer to manipulate the angle of the camera, communicate
with the sports commentator, and merge and edit movies on screen. Two-way TV will also be possible.
Current screens may be used thanks to converter boxes that change the analog signal that presently
energizes the phosphors on the back of your television screen to digital signals that are subject to less
distortion—and are the language of computers. Computer technology will then allow a world of
manipulation of the data as well as broadcast of six times as much data.
LESSON 33
TV IN PAKISTAN
The electronic media was well known in Pakistan after independence in 1947. Not only radio
broadcast was being made from Lahore and Peshawar but it was growing steadily.
Although the world at this point of time was familiar with a black & white television broadcast, particularly
in the West and the USA, TV seemed a remote possibility in the newborn country.
From the early 60s there had been a talk to start television broadcast in Pakistan. Planning continued and
various departments prepared their reports about the feasibility of a complete TV broadcasting station.
Main obstacle in setting up a TV station was not the money, but non availability of the technical staff which
must run the broadcasting house on sound footings. The efforts continued, however, and bore fruit when
on Nov 26, 1964 country‘s first TV station was set up in Lahore.
By this time TV had advanced to color transmission in a number of countries, the PTV was a B/W version.
Nonetheless the enthusiasm of starting a TV broadcasting house was overflowing and the staff – both on
the technical as well as programming sides, showed determination to make this venture a success. No one
would have imagined at that point of time, that this small box would bring a revolution in mass
communication in this part of the world where other means of mass communication were proving relatively
costlier.
Enthusiasm
Watching the moving images at your drawing room was a real treat. TV sets were not frequently
available in the markets and the ones available for sale were expensive and only the rich could afford the
cost of getting a set. A status symbol it was to have a set indeed. Relatives and neighbors would gather
around the box much before the broadcast. Women would finish cooking early and the students would do
their homework well before the TV would start playing its typical signature tune and showing its insignia.
The first sight of the announcer was cheered and voices were raised to call others to come as it has started
now. It is irrefutably difficult to forget those moments of history by the ones who had witnessed them. It
was not limit to household activity; TV transmission was also watched at the monitoring rooms of
newspapers for getting the latest from around the world. Sometime a snap of some very interesting footage
was also had, though picture so taken lacked in quality.
Evening Transmission only
TV broadcast was limit to five hours, from 6 pm to 11 pm with one weekly holiday on Monday.
People would sit in front of the set from the signature tune, women would finish household errands,
children doing their homework much before the first images of the day, usually recitation from the holy
Quran. Hardly a person would move away till the national anthem was played to mark end of the day‘s
transmission. Due to the immense interest for watching the moving images and the restricted timings of the
transmission, the work-schedule of many was now changed.
Live Broadcast
The most prominent feature of PTV‘s early years was the live transmission for it did not have the
recording facilities. It was not the news to be read in real time only, but the talks, plays and music was also
broadcast live. It was a unique experience for all the directors, producers, performers and the technical staff.
Hardly one can imagine now that there had been such an exceptional time in PTV‘s life.
Many radio artists seemed moving to and fro between radio station and the PTV building next door to accomplish the task of
live transmission and rehearsals.
PTV and the unforgettable War of Sept 1965
The September 1965 war with India was a testing time for the whole nation. Nothing was above
the country‘s defense. The PTV Lahore station did the heroics it still gets credit for. Its OB teams went to
the borders and captured some incredible images of the battlefield. Nothing more could have excited people
seeing with their own eyes Pakistan Army‘s jawans invading Indian posts, destroying them and capturing
enemy‘s land across the border. With madam Noor Jahan‘s spirited national songs in the backdrop, the
PTV‘s showings worked as a catalyst to fuel the passion for national defense.
National Microwave Network
A major breakthrough was achieved in 1973 when all the TV stations in the country were linked by
a microwave network, enabling live telecast of different programs which helped the PTV save time and
money. Now a drama at Lahore station could be watched by viewers in Karachi and Islamabad at the same
time and similar transmission from Karachi could be made for the upcountry stations. This facility was fully
exploited at the time of Lahore Islamic Summit of Feb 1974. The Karachi and Rawalpindi stations, which
were functioning since 1967, were linked with the live coverage of the events from Lahore. It was due to
PTV that at one stage it looked as the whole nation was involved and a part of the unprecedented events of
the summit. From Shalimar Gardens civic reception to saying prayers at the historic Badshahi Mosque, and
from the public meeting at the Qaddafi stadium – also addressed by Libya‘s president Col Qaddafi, to the
business meetings at the Punjab Assembly floor was a great job done by the PTV in a commendably
organized way.
PTV goes colored
Though the Islamic conference coverage was very successful, many thought it would have been far
better had it been a colored transmission. Another reason to do away with the black and white broadcast
was that in most part of the world the TV transmission was getting colored and companies were now not
making parts for the equipment used in the B/W transmission. The day came soon when in 1976
COLOUR TRANSMISSION STARTED on experimental basis. Regular Color transmission started from
Feb 18, 1982.
More Developments
1987 – Federal TV centre at Islamabad commissioned.
1992 – Second TV channel for education commissioned.
1996 – Local area transmission from four (4) stations started.
1998 – Transmission of PTV world programmes started.
Ptv-1 - Area covered: 38%, population covered: 86.48 %.
Ptv-2/ Ptv World - area covered: 24.19 %, population covered: 55.83 %.
Dramas – the source of strength to PTV
PTV excelled in broadcasting various programs – news analysis, talk shows especially for the youth
and entertainment purposes. But what earned it distinction was its drama production. To mention a few;
Parchhaian
Aik muhabat sua afsanay
Shama
Waris
Alpha bravo Charlie
Tanhayian
Alif noon
Sona chandi
Khuda ki basti
Dhoop kinaray
Another area where TV in Pakistan has been a major source of entertainment is the coverage of sporting events. From the
times of making special arrangements to show live boxing bouts of all time great Muhammad Ali to all major sporting
activities these days, PTV keeps people glued for hours to watch sports of their interest. It also brings business to TV.
LESSON 35
PUBLIC RELATIONS AND MASS COMMUNICATION - I
Ask a person secret of his success and among answers you may notice mention of his PR. Have a
good rather strong public relation approach and climb up the ladder of promotion quickly. A person with
bad PR, though good in many other respects, may suffer and make slow progress as compared to a person
possessing matching qualities but having excellent PR. This clearly indicates the importance of the public
relation in communication.
Almost same holds true about the organizations and the companies as they tend to wield this tool on more
scientific lines. The presence of PR in mass communication is mainly due to corporate sector which has
over the decades exploited PR for the promotion of their products, personalities and services.
Here we will see what purpose is served by the PR in mass communication.
Definition
• Aspect of communications that involves promoting a desirable image for a person or group seeking
public attention.
• Public relations (PR) is the art of managing communication between an organization and its key
publics to build, manage and sustain a positive image.
• One of the earliest definitions of PR was coined by Edward Bernays. According to him, "Public
Relations is a management function which tabulates public attitudes, defines the policies,
procedures and interest of an organization followed by executing a program of action to earn
public understanding and acceptance. "
• According to two American PR professionals Scott M. Cutlips and Allen H. Center, "PR is a
planned effort to influence opinion through good character and responsible performance based
upon mutual satisfactory two-way communication".
History
Precursors to public relations are found in publicists who specialized in promoting circuses,
theatrical performances, and other public spectacles. In the United States, where public relations has its
origins, many early PR practices were developed in support of the expansive power of the railroads. In fact,
many scholars believe that the first appearance of the term "public relations" appeared in the 1897 Year Book
of Railway Literature.
Mass media-men employed
Later, PR practitioners were—and are still often—recruited from the ranks of journalism. Some
journalists, concerned with ethics, criticize former colleagues for using their inside understanding of news
media to help clients receive favorable media coverage.
Despite many journalists' discomfort with the field of public relations, well-paid PR positions remain a
popular choice for reporters and editors forced into a career change by the instability of the print and
electronic media industry. PR historians say the first PR firm, the Publicity Bureau, was established in 1900
by former newspapermen, with Harvard University as its first client.
WW I pushed PR
The First World War also helped stimulate the development of public relations as a profession.
Many of the first PR professionals, including Ivy Lee, Edward Bernays, and Carl Byoir, got their start with
the Committee on Public Information (also known as the Creel Commission), which organized publicity on
behalf of U.S. objectives during World War I.
Some historians regard Ivy Lee as the first real practitioner of public relations, but Edward Bernays is
generally regarded today as the profession's founder. In describing the origin of the term Public Relations,
No to propaganda, yes to PR.
Bernays commented,
"When I came back to the United States, I decided that if you could use propaganda for war, you could certainly use it for
peace. And propaganda got to be a bad word because of the Germans using it. So what I did was to try to find some other
words, so we found the words Council on Public Relations".
Case Study
One of Bernays' early clients was the tobacco industry. In 1929, he orchestrated a legendary
publicity stunt aimed at persuading women to take up cigarette smoking, which was then considered
unfeminine and inappropriate for women with any social standing. To counter this image, Bernays arranged
for New York City a march in that year's Easter Day Parade, defiantly smoking cigarettes as a statement of
rebellion against the norms of a male-dominated society. Photographs of what Bernays dubbed the
"Torches of Liberty Brigade" were sent to newspapers, convincing many women to equate smoking with
women's rights. Some women went so far as to demand membership in all-male smoking clubs, a highly
controversial act at the time.
PR standards
In 1950 PRSA enacts the first "Professional Standards for the Practice of Public Relations," a
forerunner to the current Code of Ethics, last revised in 2000 to include six core values and six code
provisions. The six core values are "Advocacy, Honesty, Expertise, Independence, Loyalty, and Fairness."
The six code provisions are "Free Flow of Information, Competition, Disclosure of Information,
Safeguarding Confidences, Conflicts of Interest, and Enhancing the Profession."
Methodology
Public relations describes the various methods a company uses to disseminate messages about its
products, services, or overall image to its customers, employees, stockholders, suppliers, or other interested
members of the community. The point of public relations is to make the public think favorably about the
company and its offerings.
Tools employed for PR
Commonly used tools of public relations include:
• News releases
• Press conferences
• Speaking engagements
• Community service programs
Difference between PR and Advertisement
Although advertising is closely related to public relations—as it too is concerned with promoting
and gaining public acceptance for the company's products—the goal of advertising is generating sales, while
the goal of public relations is generating good will. The effect of good public relations is to lessen the gap
between how an organization sees itself and how others outside the organization perceive it.
Two way communication
Public relations involve two-way communication between an organization and its public. It requires
listening to the constituencies on which an organization depends as well as analyzing and understanding the
attitudes and behaviors of those audiences. Only then can an organization undertake an effective public
relations campaign.
Responsibility of PR
Many small business owners elect to handle the public relations activities for their own companies,
while others choose to hire a public relations specialist. Managers of somewhat larger firms, on the other
hand, frequently contract with external public relations or advertising agencies to enhance their corporate
image. But whatever option is chosen, the head of a company is ultimately responsible for its public
relations.
Goals of Public Relations
Goals of public relations are to create, maintain, and protect the organization's reputation, enhance
its prestige, and present a favorable image. Studies have shown that consumers often base their purchase
decisions on a company's reputation, so public relations can have a definite impact on sales and revenue.
Public relations can be an effective part of a company's overall marketing strategy. In the case of a for-profit company, public
relations and marketing should be coordinated to be sure they are working to achieve the same objectives.
Another major public relations goal is to create good will for the organization. This involves such functions
as employee relations, stockholder and investor relations, media relations, and community relations.
Public relations may function to educate certain audiences about many things relevant to the organization—
including the business in general, new legislation, and how to use a particular product—as well as to
overcome misconceptions and prejudices. For example, a nonprofit organization may attempt to educate
the public regarding a certain point of view, while trade associations may undertake educational programs
regarding particular industries and their products and practices.
PR Campaign
Effective public relations require a knowledge, based on analysis and understanding, of all the
factors that influence public attitudes toward the organization. While a specific public relations project or
campaign may be undertaken proactively or reactively (to manage some sort of image crisis), the first basic
step in either case involves analysis and research to identify all the relevant factors of the situation. In this
first step, the organization gains an understanding of its various constituencies and the key factors that are
influencing their perceptions of the organization.
In the second step, the organization establishes an overall policy with respect to the campaign. This involves
defining goals and desired outcomes, as well as the constraints under which the campaign will operate. It is
necessary to establish such policy guidelines in order to evaluate proposed strategies and tactics as well as
the overall success of the campaign.
In step three, the organization outlines its strategies and tactics. Using its knowledge of the target audiences
and its own established policies, the organization develops specific programs to achieve the desired
objectives. Finally, step four involves actual communication with the targeted public. The organization then
employs specific public relations techniques, such as press conferences or special events, to reach the
intended audience.
In step five the organization receives feedback from its public. How have they reacted to the public
relations campaign? Are there some unexpected developments? In the final step, the organization assesses
the program and makes any necessary adjustments.
Public relations involves
1. Evaluation of public attitudes and opinions.
2. Formulation and implementation of an organization's procedures and policy regarding
communication with its publics.
3. Coordination of communications programs.
4. Developing rapport and good-will through a two way communication process.
5. Fostering a positive relationship between an organization and its public constituents.
Examples
• Corporations use marketing public relations (MPR) to convey information about the products they
manufacture or services they provide to potential customers to support their direct sales efforts.
Typically, they support sales in the short and long term, establishing and burnishing the
corporation's branding for a strong, ongoing market.
• Corporations also use public-relations as a vehicle to reach legislators and other politicians, seeking
favorable tax, regulatory, and other treatment, and they may use public relations to portray
themselves as enlightened employers, in support of human-resources recruiting programs.
• Non-profit organizations, including schools and universities, hospitals, and human and social
service agencies, use public relations in support of awareness programs, fund-raising programs,
staff recruiting, and to increase patronage of their services.
Politicians use public relations to attract votes and raise money, and, when successful at the ballot box, to
promote and defend their service in office, with an eye to the next election or, at career‘s their legacy.
Industry today
According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, there were approximately 122,000 public relations
specialists in the United States in 1998, while there were approximately 485,000 advertising, marketing, and
public relations managers working in all industries. Public relations practitioners deliver information
through the media to target audiences or, with the advent of the Internet, directly to specific stakeholder
groups. Because similar opinions tend to be shared by a group of people rather than an entire society,
research may be conducted to determine a range of things such as target audiences, appeal, as well as
strategies for coordinated message presentation. PR may target different audiences with different messages
to achieve an overall goal. Public Relations sets out to effect widespread opinion and behavior changes.
Modern public relations uses a variety of techniques including opinion polling and focus groups to evaluate
public opinion, combined with a variety of high-tech techniques for distributing information on behalf of
their clients, including satellite feeds, the Internet, broadcast faxes, and database-driven phone banks to
recruit supporters for a client's cause. According to the PRSA,
"Examples of the knowledge that may be required in the professional practice of public relations
include communication arts, psychology, social psychology, sociology, political science, economics, and the
principles of management and ethics. Technical knowledge and skills are required for opinion research,
public issues analysis, media relations, direct mail, institutional advertising, publications, film/video
productions, special events, speeches, and presentations."
Job specialization
Although public relations professionals are stereotypically seen as corporate servants, the reality is
that almost any organization that has a stake in how it is portrayed in the public arena employs at least one
PR manager. Large organizations may even have dedicated communications departments. Government
agencies, trade associations, and other non-profit organizations commonly carry out PR activities.
Public relations should be seen as a management function in any organization. An effective communication,
or public relations, plan for an organization is developed to communicate to an audience (whether internal
or external publics) in such a way the message coincides with organizational goals and seeks to benefit
mutual interests whenever possible.
LESSON 37
ADVERTISING BEYOND PRINT MEDIA
Moving on from the point when we were discussing advertising in the print media, we observe that
the human instinct to persuade fellow beings to buy commodities and ideas on commercial or non
commercial basis by using means other than newspapers and magazines has also been there.
Here we will examine different ways employed by men to further the cause of advertising.
Commercial Advertising Media
Wall paintings
Billboards
Street furniture components
Printed flyers
Radio
Cinema
Television
Web banners
Web popups
Skywriting
Bus stop benches
Town criers
Sides of buses, taxicab doors and roof mounts
Musical stage shows
Subway platforms and trains
Elastic bands on disposable diapers
Stickers on apples in supermarkets
The opening section of streaming audio and video
Posters
Back of event tickets and supermarket receipts
Covert advertising
It is embedded in other entertainment media is known as product placement.
A more recent version of this is advertising in film, by having a main character use an item or other of a
definite brand - an example is in the movie Minority Report, where Tom Cruise's character Tom Anderton
owns a computer with the Nokia logo clearly written in the top corner, or his watch engraved with the
Bulgari logo. Another example of advertising in film is in I, Robot, where main character played by Will Smith
mentions his Converse shoes several times, calling them "classics," because the film is set far in the future.
Cadillac chose to advertise in the movie The Matrix Reloaded, which as a result contained many scenes in
which Cadillac cars were used. Similarly, product placement for Omega Watches, BMW and Aston-Martin
cars are featured in recent James Bond films, most notably, Casino Royale.
Radio commercial
A radio commercial (often called an advert in the United Kingdom, or a spot to people in the
business) is a form of advertising in which goods, services, organizations, ideas, etc. are promoted via the
medium of radio. Many commercials are produced by an outside ad agency and, airtime is purchased from a
station or network in exchange for sponsorship of its programming.
Radio commercials are frequently sold in either 30 second or 60 second increments. While a :60 radio
commercial is twice as long as a :30 radio commercial, it is rarely sold at twice the price. While practices
vary, most radio stations only charge 20-30% more for the longer spot.
While many commercials are professionally produced, radio is not out of reach for the small retail business
owner. Most local radio stations have the ability to produce radio commercials in house using their own
announcers. At times local radio stations will write and even produce the radio commercials for local retail
advertisers at no additional cost when the merchant purchases a schedule of "spots" on the station.
The first radio commercial is credited to WEAF, New York on August 28, 1922 for the Queens Boro real
estate corporation. The ten-minute live commercial was voiced by H.M. Blackwell, a representative of
Queensboro.
Advertising Media—Audio
The most common audio advertising media is FM radio. Placement of an advertisement on FM
radio costs about as much as an advertisement placed in a metropolitan newspaper. However, radio is more
dynamic than print alternatives because it allows the advertiser essentially to talk with the consumer. Indeed,
many small business consultants believe that an entertaining and informative radio advertising campaign can
be a major asset. Nonetheless, some analysts contend that small business owners should proceed cautiously
before deciding to rely exclusively on radio advertising. Indeed, most businesses incorporate a media mix
when attempting to sell their products or services, utilizing radio advertising in concert with print and other
advertising media. The key for small business owners is to study what types of advertising best suits their
products and services and to use that media to spearhead their advertising campaign.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Radio
Radio stations feature many different programming emphases. These range from music-oriented
formats such as country, adult contemporary, classic rock, and alternative rock to news-or talk-oriented
formats. Since these different formats attract different demographic segments of the total audience,
business owners can take appreciable measures to reach their target audience simply by buying time on
appropriate stations. Another major advantage of radio advertising is that it is inexpensive to place and to
produce, allowing small business owners to place advertisements on more than one station in a given
market. In addition, radio advertising content can be changed quickly to meet changes in the market or to
reflect new business objectives. Finally, radio reaches large numbers of commuters, income-generating
people who often pay more attention to radio advertising than to other advertising media, especially if they
are driving alone.
The costs associated with purchasing radio advertising time reflect this emphasis on reaching the commuter
audience. The four time slots, or "day parts," offered for advertisers by most radio stations are the morning
drive, daytime, afternoon drive, and evening. The two most expensive—but also most effective advertising
slots—are the morning and afternoon drive times.
Although radio advertising is effective, there are drawbacks to consider when deciding whether to create
and place a radio spot. Aspects to consider include competitor clutter, the cumulative costs associated with
long-term radio spots, and the fleeting nature of a radio message. In addition to these drawbacks, several
other legal and procedural guidelines need to be considered. Nation's Business writer Phil Hill provided a
rundown of some of these concerns in his article "Make Listeners Your Customers":
1. If celebrity sound-alike is used, make sure a clear disclaimer is included in the advertisement, saying
that the sound-alike is not the actual celebrities.
2. If working with a station to create an advertisement, always work with a contract.
3. Treat the competition fairly. Federal law mandates that advertisers must accurately depict the
competition.
4. Be prepared to run a radio advertisement often. Industry analysts indicate that an advertisement
needs to be heard by a consumer on several occasions before it is likely to generate a response.
5. Be cautious about excessive reliance on one station. There may be some instances in which a
business's products or services are compatible with only one station (i.e., a dealer in sports
paraphernalia may want to limit his or her radio advertising to the lone sports-talk station in town),
but small businesses that offer less niche-oriented services or products can dramatically expand the
audience they reach if they use more than one station for their audio advertising.
TV
The TV commercial is generally considered the most effective mass-market advertising format and
this is reflected by the high prices TV networks charge for commercial airtime during popular TV events.
The annual Super Bowl football game in the United States is known as much for its commercial
advertisements as for the game itself, and the average cost of a single thirty-second TV spot during this
game has reached $2.5 million (as of 2006).
Virtual advertisements may be inserted into regular television programming through computer graphics. It
is typically inserted into otherwise blank backdrops or used to replace local billboards that are not relevant
to the remote broadcast audience. More controversially, virtual billboards may be inserted into the
background where none existing in real-life. Virtual product placement is also possible. Increasingly, other
mediums such as those discussed below are overtaking television due to a shift towards consumer's usage of
the Internet.
The vast majority of television commercials today consist of brief advertising spots, ranging in length from
a few seconds to several minutes.
Commercials of this sort have been used to sell every product imaginable over the years, from household
products to goods and services, to political campaigns. The effect of television commercials upon the
viewing public has been so successful and so pervasive that it is considered impossible for a politician to
wage a successful election campaign, in the United States, without airing a good television commerciale.
Characteristics of commercials
Many television commercials feature catchy jingles (songs or melodies) or catch-phrases that
generate sustained appeal, which may remain in the minds of television viewers long after the span of the
advertising campaign. These long-lasting advertising elements may therefore be said to have taken a place in
the pop culture history of the demographic to which they have appeared.
Few examples,
Aiy Khuda meray abbu salamat rahain
Yey dil mangay aur
Aur sonao
Talk shawk
For catching attention of consumers, communication agencies make wide use of humour. In fact, many
psychological studies tried to demonstrate the effect of humour and indicate the way to empower
advertising persuasion.
Animation
Animation is often used in commercials. Techniques can vary from hand-drawn traditional
animation to different forms of computer animation. By using animated characters, a commercial may have
a certain appeal that is difficult to achieve with actors or mere product displays. For this reason, an animated
commercial (or a series of such commercials) can be very long-running, several decades in many instances.
An animated character talking to a real one, is a common sight these days.
Computer
Advertising on the World Wide Web is a recent phenomenon. Prices of Web-based advertising
space are dependent on the "relevance" of the surrounding web content and the traffic that the website
receives.
E-mail advertising is another recent phenomenon. Unsolicited bulk E-mail advertising is known as "spam".
Others
Some companies have proposed to place messages or corporate logos on the side of booster
rockets and the International Space Station. Controversy exists on the effectiveness of subliminal
advertising), and the pervasiveness of mass messages
Unpaid advertising (also called word of mouth advertising), can provide good exposure at minimal cost.
Personal recommendations ("bring a friend", "sell it"), spreading buzz, or achieving the feat of equating a
brand with a common noun ("Xerox" = "photocopier", "Kleenex" = tissue, and "Vaseline" = petroleum
jelly) -- these are the pinnacles of any advertising campaign. However, some companies oppose the use of
their brand name to label an object.
Rating
The most common method for measuring the impact of mass media advertising is the use of the rating
point (RP) or the more accurate target rating point (TRP). These two measures refer to the percentage of
the universe of the existing base of audience members that can be reached by the use of each media outlet
in a particular moment in time. The difference between the two is that the rating point refers to the
percentage to the entire universe while the target rating point refers to the percentage to a particular
segment or target. This becomes very useful when focusing advertising efforts on a particular group of
people.
• For example, think of an advertising campaign targeting a female audience aged 25 to 45. While the
overall rating of a TV show might be well over 10 rating points it might very well happen that the
same show in the same moment of time is generating only 2.5 trps (being the target: women 25-45).
This would mean that while the show has a large universe of viewers it is not necessarily reaching a
large universe of women in the ages of 25 to 45 making it a less desirable location to place an ad for
an advertiser looking for this particular demographic. Conversely, a TV show with a low overall
rating point may be more successful at selling ads when its target rating points are high.
Advertising Evaluation
Once the advertising campaign is over, companies normally evaluate it compared to the established
goals. An effective tactic in measuring the usefulness of the advertising campaign is to measure the pre-and
post-sales of the company's product. In order to make this more effective, some companies divide up the
country into regions and run the advertising campaigns only in some areas. The different geographic areas
are then compared (advertising versus non-advertising), and a detailed analysis is performed to provide an
evaluation of the campaign's effectiveness. Depending on the results, a company will modify future
advertising efforts in order to maximize effectiveness.
Summary
Advertising is the paid, non-personal promotion of a cause, idea, product, or service by an
identified sponsor attempting to inform or persuade a particular target audience. Advertising has evolved to
take a variety of forms and has permeated nearly every aspect of modern society. The various delivery
mechanisms for advertising include banners at sporting events, billboards, Internet Web sites, logos on
clothing, magazines, newspapers, radio spots, and television commercials. While advertising can be
successful at getting the message out, it does have several limitations, including its inability to (1) focus on
an individual consumer's specific needs, (2) provide in-depth information about a product, and (3) be costeffective
for small companies. Other factors, such as objectives, budgets, approaches, and evaluation
methods must all be considered.
The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the introduction of cable television and particularly MTV. Pioneering
the concept of the music video, MTV ushered in a new type of advertising: the consumer tunes in for the
advertisement, rather than it being a byproduct or afterthought. As cable (and later satellite) television
became increasingly prevalent, "specialty" channels began to emerge, and eventually entire channels, such as
QVC and Home Shopping Network and ShopTV, devoted to advertising merchandise, where again the
consumer tuned in for the ads.
Marketing through the Internet opened new frontiers for advertisers and led to the "dot-com" boom of the
1990s. Entire corporations operated solely on advertising revenue, offering everything from coupons to free
Internet access. At the turn of the 21st century, the search engine Google revolutionized online advertising
by emphasizing contextually relevant, unobtrusive ads intended to help, rather than inundate, users. This
has led to a plethora of similar efforts and an increasing trend of interactive advertising.
A recent advertising innovation is "guerrilla promotions", which involve unusual approaches such as staged
encounters in public places, giveaways of products such as cars that are covered with brand messages, and
interactive advertising where the viewer can respond to become part of the advertising message. This
reflects an increasing trend of interactive and "embedded" ads, such as via product placement, having
consumers vote through text messages, and various innovations utilizing social networking sites.
An advertising campaign is a series of advertisement messages that share a single idea and theme which
make up an integrated marketing communication (IMC). Advertising campaigns appear in different media
across a specific time frame.
The critical part of making an advertising campaign is determining a campaign theme, as it sets the tone for the
individual advertisements and other forms of marketing communications that will be used. The campaign
theme is the central message that will be communicated in the promotional activities. The campaign themes
are usually developed with the intention of being used for a substantial period but many of them are short
lived due to factors such as being ineffective or market conditions and/or competition in the marketplace.
Forms of Advertising
Advertising can take a number of forms, including advocacy, comparative, cooperative, and directmail,
informational, institutional, outdoor, persuasive, product, reminder, point-of-purchase, and specialty
advertising.
Advocacy Advertising
Advocacy advertising is normally thought of as any advertisement, message, or public
communication regarding economic, political, or social issues. The advertising campaign is designed to
persuade public opinion regarding a specific issue important in the public arena. The ultimate goal of
advocacy advertising usually relates to the passage of pending state or federal legislation. Almost all
nonprofit groups use some form of advocacy advertising to influence the public's attitude toward a
particular issue. One of the largest and most powerful nonprofit advocacy groups is the American
Association of Retired Persons (AARP). The AARP fights to protect social programs such as Medicare and
Social Security for senior citizens by encouraging its members to write their legislators, using television
advertisements to appeal to emotions, and publishing a monthly newsletter describing recent state and
federal legislative action. Other major nonprofit advocacy groups include the environmental organization
Green-peace, Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD), and the National Rifle Association (NRA).
Comparative Advertising
Comparative advertising compares one brand directly or indirectly with one or more competing
brands. This advertising technique is very common and is used by nearly every major industry, including
airlines and automobile manufacturers. One drawback of comparative advertising is that customers have
become more skeptical about claims made by a company about its competitors because accurate
information has not always been provided, thus making the effectiveness of comparison advertising
questionable. In addition, companies that engage in comparative advertising must be careful not to
misinform the public about a competitor's product. Incorrect or misleading information may trigger a
lawsuit by the aggrieved company or regulatory action by a governmental agency such as the Federal Trade
Commission (FTC).
Cooperative Advertising
Cooperative advertising is a system that allows two parties to share advertising costs. Manufacturers
and distributors, because of their shared interest in selling the product, usually use this cooperative
advertising technique. An example might be when a soft-drink manufacturer and a local grocery store split
the cost of advertising the manufacturer's soft drinks; both the manufacturer and the store benefit from
increased store traffic and its associated sales. Cooperative advertising is especially appealing to small
storeowners who, on their own, could not afford to advertise the product adequately.
Direct-Mail Advertising
Catalogues, flyers, letters, and postcards are just a few of the direct-mail advertising options. Directmail
advertising has several advantages, including detail of information, personalization, selectivity, and
speed. But while direct mail has advantages, it carries an expensive per-head price, is dependent on the
appropriateness of the mailing list, and is resented by some customers, who consider it "junk mail."
Informational Advertising
In informational advertising, which is used when a new product is first being introduced, the
emphasis is on promoting the product name, benefits, and possible uses. Car manufacturers used this
strategy when sport utility vehicles (SUVs) were first introduced.
Institutional Advertising
Institutional advertising takes a much broader approach, concentrating on the benefits, concept,
idea, or philosophy of a particular industry. Companies often use it to promote image-building activities,
such an environmentally friendly business practices or new community-based programs that it sponsors.
Institutional advertising is closely related to public relations, since both are interested in promoting a
positive image of the company to the public. As an example, a large lumber company may develop an
advertising theme around its practice of planting trees in areas where they have just been harvested. A
theme of this nature keeps the company's name in a positive light with the general public because the
replanting of trees is viewed positively by most people.
Outdoor Advertising
Billboards and messages painted on the side of buildings are common forms of outdoor
advertising, which is often used when quick, simple ideas are being promoted. Since repetition is the key to
successful promotion, outdoor advertising is most effective when located along heavily traveled city streets
and when the product being promoted can be purchased locally. Only about 1 percent of advertising is
conducted in this manner.
Persuasive Advertising
Persuasive advertising is used after a product has been introduced to customers. The primary goal
is for a company to build selective demand for its product. For example, automobile manufacturers often
produce special advertisements promoting the safety features of their vehicles. This type of advertisement
could allow automobile manufactures to charge more for their products because of the perceived higher
quality the safety features afford.
Product Advertising
Product advertising pertains to non-personal selling of a specific product. An example is a regular
television commercial promoting a soft drink. The primary purpose of the advertisement is to promote the
specific soft drink, not the entire soft-drink line of a company.
Reminder Advertising
Reminder advertising is used for products that have entered the mature stage of the product life
cycle. The advertisements are simply designed to remind customers about the product and to maintain
awareness. For example, detergent producers spend a considerable amount of money each year promoting
their products to remind customers that their products are still available and for sale.
Point-of-Purchase Advertising
Point-of-purchase advertising uses displays or other promotional items near the product that is
being sold. The primary motivation is to attract customers to the display so that they will purchase the
product. Stores are more likely to use point-of-purchase displays if they have help from the manufacturer in
setting them up or if the manufacturer provides easy instructions on how to use the displays. Thus,
promotional items from manufacturers who provide the best instructions or help are more likely to be used
by the retail stores.
Specialty Advertising
Specialty advertising is a form of sales promotion designed to increase public recognition of a
company's name. A company can have its name put on a variety of items, such as caps, glassware, gym bags,
jackets, key chains, and pens. The value of specialty advertising varies depending on how long the items
used in the effort last. Most companies are successful in achieving their goals for increasing public
recognition and sales through these efforts.
LESSON 41
NEW MEDIA IN MASS COMMUNICATION
New Media is a term that describes traditional forms of media that have been transformed by
advancements in digital technology and digital computing.
The distinction between "New Media" and Old media is sometimes perceived to be a difficult one to make,
because new media does not so much represent an entirely new creation, but the re-conceptualization of a
current, an most likely popular source of information in a newly digital format. This relationship of old to
new media is concerned with transformations of the apparatus (social machine) of language, from more
basic forms of oral communication to the establishment of literacy, and from literacy to the digital
adaptation of speech. New Media must therefore be understood within the context of not only established
institutional practices, but also within the processes by which institutions establish their public and private
identities as well.
What is classed as New Media?
• Web Sites including Blogs
• Email
• CD/DVD
• Electronic kiosks
• Virtual worlds
• Interactive Television
• Internet Telephony
• Mobile
• Pod-cast
• Hypertext Fiction
Technology forcing changes
Newspapers were settled in their own way of communication by the start of the 20th century. When
came radio, and people were able to get news quicker than print media, the newspapers turned more
interpretative. When TV tried to outplay radio by showing images of distant event, radio started working
hard on new formats of music, light discussion and telling jokes (FM style). Now, to compete with internet
TV is going for high-definition technology to display things in digital formats at the same time.
On-line communication
Since the Internet was transformed into a mass medium, around the mid-90s, journalists and media
theoreticians have tried to define what online journalism is. One thing is for sure; internet is the new media
of modern times.
Unlike other media, which are greatly defined by their form (paper, sound, picture), online media are not
clear about their form. Very conditionally we can say that their form is limited by the computer screen or
speakers, since they also have a category of speed, unknown to the old media which extend in real time and
space. This means that the instrument we use to receive information considerably affects how it is imparted.
From end users’ perspective
A television program is the same regardless of the size of your TV screen, just as a radio program
does not change depending on whether you are listening to it on a transistor radio or an expensive stereo.
Newspapers are defined in the printing house and are such regardless of who reads them and where. But an
Internet site must take into account both those who access it through a high density network with screens 15 inches and larger,
as well as those who view it on the screens of their mobile phones with a modest access speed of 9,600 bps.
The fact that more and more people are using mobile phones (how many people do you know that do not
have them and for what reason do they not have them) means that the information market is moving to this
side and that it is only a question of technological and social compromise how quickly these devices will
surpass short text messages in favor of audio/video contents broadcast in real time.
Blogs are not formal media
Internet blogs are not journalism since they do not require any journalistic knowledge or experience
to write (create) them. Even the fact that behind the blogs stand a journalist does not mean that the product
of his observations posted on the Internet is journalism. Journalism is not a profession that can be done in
the privacy of one‘s room; it requires a newsroom. Experience teaches us that no good result comes out of
something which, with the exception of the author, is not read/seen/heard before it is published/broadcast
by anyone else, or at least no one with the power to stop or delay it being published/broadcast if necessary.
The new media, unfortunately, offer this possibility. With the wholehearted help of legislation, or lack of it,
new media cultivate this jungle.
Is it really new?
An article taken from a newspaper must take into account printing technology, which means that it
cannot be transformed, without major editorial changes, into a form acceptable, for example, for the
Internet. This would entail significant shortening of the article, emphasizing key words, breaking it up into
sections connected with hyperlinks (which would not have to be written all over if they already exist on the
net). Therefore, this is a task for which there is usually not enough time or people or resources. The result is
that what we see on the net and what we call online journalism is actually only a projection of the old media,
with the only contribution being a technological one. Now we can read our favorite newspapers at the other
end of the world, at almost no charge, simultaneously with readers in the city they are published in. The
content is the same.
Old wine in new bottle
Any form of transfer of information can be used to distribute news reports. After all, at the
beginning of the 90s major media outlets had their own Tele-fax editions, for subscribers living far away
who had no patience for air distribution. Tele-faxes were replaced several years ago by e-mail since they are
much more suitable and rather less expensive.
These changes in distribution have not been accompanied sufficiently by changes in journalistic expression.
Mostly because the limitations of new technologies have not been restraining. A long newsletter that you
receive by electronic mail is not ―comfortable‖ to read, but nothing prevents the author from creating it that
way and sending it out. Quite the opposite, in contrast to the old media, the new media practically have no
spatial or time limitations, except the mentioned transfer speed. This, instead of being an advantage,
becomes their disadvantage.
Disadvantages in the Use of New Media
While most advertising and marketing agencies have cited the use of New Media as a positive force
in reaching new and old customers alike, a prevalent concern amongst companies that wish to remain
competitive in today's digital markets is the rapid rate at which new media changes, and can be changed
from any number of sources. While the new level of communication between customers and those
providing any kind of service is generally beneficial, it also allows for more methods by which unhappy
consumers may disproportionately voice their concerns, in relation to their actual overall sampling size
amongst consumers as a whole.
Another negative result of the implementation of new media advertising and marketing is generally regarded
as being cost-related. As New Media forms are almost exclusively digital in nature, the cost of initial
establishment and then the upkeep of the equipment, resources, and manpower needed may pose a
significant problem for smaller businesses. It has been said that in this way, the worldwide trend towards
reliance on New Media for such means may very well be a move towards further corporate globalization,
and the downfall of smaller businesses that can't compete with such new technological means.
LESSON 43
MASS MEDIA IN PRESENT AGE
Books
Newspapers
Magazines
Radio
Film
Television
Internet
All organs are surviving, no one wiped out, everyone has a role and its own audience/readers/users.
Common man is getting an overall impact of all of these.
Books – still a charm
Fiction
Science
Poetry
Children / women
Travelogue
Albums / stamp collections
Text books
Politics
Economics
Medicine
History
Dictionaries
E-books
In descending order of number of new titles per year, as of 1996.
1. United Kingdom (1996) 107,263, (2005) 206,000
2. China (1994) 100,951 (close second)
3. United States (1996) 68,175, (2005) 172,000
4. Germany (1996) 71,515
5. Japan (1996) 56,221
6. Spain (1996) 46,330
7. Russian Federation (1996) 36,237
8. Italy (1996) 35,236
9. France (1995) 34,766
10. Netherlands (1993) 34,067 [
Magazine
Types of magazines:
o Academic journals
o Architecture magazines
o Art magazines
o Business magazines
o Car magazines
o Children's magazines
o Computer magazines
o Health and fitness magazines
o History magazines
o Home and furniture magazines
o Humor magazines
o Inspirational magazines
o Literacy
o Literary magazines
o Luxury magazines
o Men's magazines
o Music magazines
o News magazines
o Online magazines
o Pet magazines
o Politics magazines
o Pornographic magazines
o Pulp magazines
o Railroad magazines
o Regional magazines
o Religion magazines
o Satirical magazines
o Sport magazines
o Science magazines and scientific journals
o Teen magazines
o Wildlife magazines
o Women's magazines
Radio
More demographic, specific, weather, trains, flights services more, entertaining, talk style more
attractive, interactive – telephone calls, free on mobile phones, FM popular on the increase, also on internet.
TV
Flat screen, LDCs, Plazma,digital, IPT, channels increasing. People get a media mix, influenced by
every category according to age, education etc. All mass com organs intact only fluctuation none died.
Mass media – overall impact on people
Having an over all impact on politics, democracy, people‘s rights, economics, culture, globalization,
conflict resolving, bringing people closer.
